The Deposition of Caliph Muttaqi, the Rise of Mustakfi Billah and the Decline of Abbasid Power

Muttaqi lillah

Muttaqilillah bin Motazid Billah bin Mawaffiq bin Motawakkil was born of a slave girl named, Zahrah. He came to the throne when he was 34. On 26 Rajab 329 A.H., Yahkum was killed by Kurds in the neighborhood of Wasit. He kept the title Amirul Omara' for 2 years and 8 months. Following his death goods worth 1,100,000 dinars were seized and deposited in the Caliph's treasury. In Shaban 329 A.H. Abu Obadiah Buraidi took an army from Basra and went to Baghdad. The Caliph ordered him to go back and when he did not obey, the Caliph sent an army. The army was put to rout and Buraidi entered Baghdad and demanded 500,000 dinars from the Caliph with the message that if he did not concede to his demand, he would be deposed and put to death. The Caliph felt helpless and paid the ransom.

After 24 days in Ramadan 329 A.H. Buraidi's army revolted because of non-receipt of their salaries. Buraidi fled and went to Wasit. After his flight, a chief named Kortageen dominated the caliph and his court. He received the title Amirul Omara. Baghdad at the time had a large group of people from Delam in addition to the Turks. The Delamis had started growing in power since Yahkum's rise to power. The Delamis created an uprising against Kortageen but his power remained unaffected.

Hearing this, Muhammad bin Raiq who ruled over Syria went to Baghdad to secure the post of Amirul Omara. Kortageen came out of Baghdad to face him. Raiq entered Baghdad by force and Kortageen was arrested and imprisoned. The Caliph made Ibn Raiq Amirul Omara. Muhammad bin Raiq collected taxes from Abu Abdullah Buraidi by force.

In Rabia Thani 330 A.H., Ibn Buraidi invaded Baghdad and defeated Ibn Raiq. Buraidi's army was made up of Turks and the soldiers from Delam. They entered the city and started looting and killing. The Caliph along with Ibn Raiq and his own son Abu Mansoor fled to Mousil. They looted the caliph's palace and the houses of Baghdad. Some Qaramati also joined in looting. The nobles of the city were subjected to great humiliation and torture. On the arrival of the Caliph, the ruler of Mousil, Nasiruddaulah bin Hamdan, left the city. The Caliph and Ibn Raiq consoled him and called him back. Nasiruddaulah killed Muhammad bin Raiq. The Caliph gave Nasiruddaulah the title of Amirul Omara while his brother Abul Hasan was given the title Saifuddaulah.

Preparing the army Nasiruddaulah and the Caliph moved to Baghdad. Ibn Buraidi who had captured Baghdad fought but was defeated in Shawwal 330 A.H. and Nasiruddaulah entered Baghdad with the caliph. Nasiruddaulah and Saifuddaulah lived with the caliph for 11 months. Then they returned to Mousil. In Ramadan 331 A.H., a commander named Tuzoon acquired power in Baghdad and the caliph gave him the title of Amirul Omara.

In Muharram 332 A.H., Abu Jafar Sherzad entered Baghdad while Tuzoon was in Wasit. When Abu Jafar entered Baghdad caliph Muttaqi left Baghdad and fled to Mousil out of fear of him. Tuzoon and Abu Jafar jointly invaded Mousil and defeated both the brothers Nasiruddaulah and Saifuddaulah and they along with the caliph went to Nasiban and from there to Riqqah he wrote a letter to Tuzoon and reconciled with Banu Hamdan and returned to Baghdad. The caliph along with Banu Hamdan stayed on in Riqqah.

During the same period, Muizzuddaulah Ahmad bin Buwayh who controlled Ahwaz invaded Wasit. Tuzoon returned from Mousil and fought against him on 17 Thul Qada 332 A.H. Though Muizzuddaulah suffered defeat in the fight, he re-invaded Wasit and conquered it. In 332 A.H., The Russians invaded Barua an Azerbaijani town on the Russian border. Marzaban Delam heard of this and sent his forces there. The Russians plundered and killed the Muslims on a large scale. The Muslims rallied and fought back. The fight continued for a long time and after many fierce battles the Muslims forced the Russians to retreat.

Deposition of Caliph Muttaqi

Caliph Muttaqi lived with Banu Hamdan until the end of 332 A.H. Meanwhile resentment developed between them. The caliph wrote letters for help to Baghdad and to Akhsheed bin Muhammad bin Tafaj in Egypt. Akhsheed visited the caliph in Riqqah on 15 Muharram 333 A.H. and requested him to accompany him to Egypt and live there.

The minister approved of the idea and described to him the benefits of making Egypt his capital. But the caliph did not agree to it. In the meantime, Tuzoon's letter from Baghdad came granting amnesty and security to the caliph and his minister Ibn Sherzad. The caliph expressed his sense of joy after going through the contents of the letter and leaving Akhsheed, he set out to Baghdad at the end of Muharram 333 A.H. Tuzoon received him warmly at Sandyah and lodged him in his tent. The next day he blinded the caliph with hot pokers. Then he sent for Abul Qasim Abdullah bin Muktafi Billah. All the members of the government took the oath for him and called him Mustakfi Billah.

The deposed caliph Muttaqi was also presented in the court and he also took the oath for caliph Mustakfi. Muttaqi was imprisoned in Jazirah. After remaining in that state of suffering for 25 years, he died in 357 A.H. When Qahir Billah was informed of Muttaqi's blindness, he was overjoyed and began to say. "Now we two have become blind and the third is waiting." Ironically after a few days, Mustakfi also met the same fate.

Mustakfi Billah

Abul Qasim Abdullah bin Mustakfi Billah was born of a slave girl Amlaahunnas. He came to the throne in Safar 333 A.H. at the age of 41. Abul Qasim Fadl bin Muqtadir Billah also made a claim to the caliphate. He went underground Mustakfi searched for him but he could not be found. He remained in hiding during his regime. When Mustakfi failed to locate him, he had his house demolished.

Soon after caliph Mustakfi's enthronement Tuzoon died. Mustakfi conferred the title of Amirul Omara on Abu Jafar Ibn Sherzad. Having taken power into his hands, he began to squander money until the treasury became empty and the entire administration was thrown into disarray. Theft and robbery were committed with such impunity that the civilians began to desert the city and migrate in Damascus, were carried out in all territories from Andalus and Morocco to China and Turkistan. When the Islamic caliphate came to Banu Abbas, within a very short time, a separate and independent government of Banu Umayyah was established in Andalus and instead of one capital, there were two centers of the Islamic government. Then Morocco became independent. After that, the governments of Mawaraunnahr, Khorasan, and Persia went out of the control of the caliph of Baghdad. At this point in the narrative, the government of the caliph of Baghdad did not exist even in Baghdad itself. For a long time the state of the Tigris and Euphrates was under the caliph's rule. However, when the post of the Amirul Omara (chief of the chiefs) was created, its government was run by the Amirul Omara he called himself the subordinate of the caliph but in name only.

The caliph's orders were honored in the city of Baghdad proper. However, anybody who could subdue others by virtue of their power could become the Amirul Omara and the caliph would be forced to confer on him this title. Though the caliph had no power left in his hands, he enjoyed a bit of liberty and still commanded a sort of admiration and respect.

Muizzuddaulah Ahmad bin Buwayh, the fisherman's son came from Ahwaz and dominated over Baghdad and the caliph. He was given the title Malik (king) and others after him continued to enjoy this privilege. Muizzuddaulah put the caliph under strict surveillance and kept him as a respectable captive and seized the little respect he enjoyed in Baghdad. The caliph's duty was to greet ambassadors from abroad, the ambassador would be presented before the Caliph and shown a magnificent exhibition at the artificial court the Caliph would be used and exploited to serve their purpose. Conferring of titles and granting of documents were generally done by the caliph but without option. The actual decisions were made by the Malik alone.

The caliph was a figurehead only. The Malik used to fix the caliph's salary. When he received his salary late or did not receive it, he had to sell his personal belongings to meet his daily needs. The condition of the Abbasid caliphs had deteriorated to such an extent that it has become redundant for a historian to mention them, except for the word Caliph nothing else remained of their power. In order to complete the history of the Islamic governments it is essential to record the lives and conquests of the rulers who not only ruled in Baghdad but also the area of the Euphrates and Tigris and other provinces as those controlled by the Malik. In order to deal with the conditions of these territories we will continue with the Abbasid caliphs though they are no more than figureheads, they are still called caliphs.

The important point is that now we are not studying the Abbasid caliphs but those who were in control of Baghdad. We should not overlook the fact that though separate and independent governments were formed and established in provinces all over the Islamic territories, all still honored the institution of the caliph. His name was mentioned in the Friday sermons even where he had no power.

In Andalus, the Umayyah caliphate was in power. The Fatimids in North Africa claimed the caliphate and leadership and the name of the caliph of Baghdad was never mentioned in Andalus or North Africa. Besides these exceptions in all other Islamic territories, they recognized the Abbasid caliph of Baghdad as caliph and their religious leader. Sometimes a particular Malik would expunge the name of the caliph from the Friday sermon and have his own name mentioned in it but the caliph's name did exist in the sermons of the other territories.

The Deposition of Qahir Billah, Reign of Radi Billah and Decline of Abbasid Authority

Over Throw of Qahir

Qahir Billah was a killer, hasty, a chronic drunk and a man of mercurial nature. He had clamped a total ban on drinking and selling of wine. After ruling for one and a half years he was arrested by military rioters on 6 Jumad Thani 322 A.H., they put Abul Abbas Muhammad bin Muqtadir on the throne and gave him the title of Radi Billah. Immediately after assuming power, Radi Billah had Qahir Billah blinded.

According to Ali bin Muhammad Khorasani, one day Qahir Billah came to me with a spear in his hand and asked me to describe to him the habits and nature of every Caliph of the Abbasids. I said, "Saffah was quick to spill blood and his governors followed in his footsteps. He was a brave and believed in collecting taxes. Mansoor was the first to sow the seed of dissention between the Banu Abbas and the family of Abi Talib and did not let them remain as one. He was the first to have made the astrologers his companions. Suryani and non-Arabic books like geometry, Kalilah Dimnah and books in Greek were translated for him. Mahdi was very generous and a just man and whatever his father had seized from the people, he returned it to them. He had the apostates killed and rebuilt mosques on the three holy sites in Makkah, Madinah and Jerusalem. Hadi was a tyrant and proud and his governors followed suit. Haroon Rasheed fought the Romans and performed Hajj, he had rest houses and water tanks constructed on the way to Madinah, populated Tartoos, Masisah and Marash and he pleased the people. He was the first among the caliphs who played polo, chess and enjoyed shooting. Ameen was generous and tolerant but was drowned in pleasures. Mamoon was overwhelmed by astrology and philosophy. He was generous and wise. Motasim was the same and was fond of horseback riding and imitating the non-Arab kings. He fought in battles and had many conquests to his credit. Wathiq followed his father's life style. Motawakkil went against Mamoon, Motasim and Wathiq. He was against their beliefs and ordered the opposing scholars to be given the opportunity to speak on these subjects and the people were generally pleased with him." Qahir continued to ask about the other Caliphs and I kept telling him about them. He was very pleased to hear their history.

Radi Billah

The name of Radi Billah bin Muqtadir Billah was Muhammad and his kunya was Abu Abbas. He was born of a Roman slave girl named Zaloom. He was enthroned on Jumad Thani 322 A.H. following the deposition of Qahir. He was brought from the jail and put on the throne. He appointed Ali bin Maqlah as his Prime Minister. He arrested Muhammad bin Yaqut and imprisoned him. His father, Yaqut was in Wasit at that time. He arrayed his forces and went to fight against Ali bin Buwayh but lost. The same year Obaidullah Mahdi, the ruler of North Africa, died after ruling for 25 years. He was succeeded by his son Abul Qasim with the title Biamrillah.

Murder of Mardawih

As stated above, Mardawih captured the province of Rayy, Isfahan, and Ahwaz and obtained the documents authorizing him from the Caliph's court. He then claimed to be an independent ruler and made a throne of gold, the chairs of the generals and commanders were made of silver, he wore a crown and called himself emperor. He made preparations to invade Iraq and Baghdad and said that he would rebuild the palaces of the Persian emperors and would reestablish the Zoroastrian kingdom after wiping out the Arabs. This controversial talk displeased some of his commanders and he was murdered near Isfahan in 323 A.H.

Condition of the Provinces

Caliph Radi Billah's government was confined to Baghdad and its vicinity only. Independent rulers, who had acquired documents authorizing their rule on the promise of paying taxes, had gone back on their promises. Basra was under the domination of Muhammad Raiq and Khuzistan and Ahwaz were under Abu Abdullah Buraidi. Iran was ruled over by Ali bin Buwayh with the title Imaduddaulah while Kerman was controlled by Abu Ali bin Ilyas. Hasan bin Buwayh with the title Ruknuddaulah and Mardawih's brother Dashmagir were at war with each other in Rayy, Isfahan and the mountain provinces. Mousil, Deyar Bakr Deyar Egypt Deyar Rabiyah were under the rule of Muhammad bin Tafaj and some parts of Mawaraunnahr were under the Bani Saman rulers. Abu Tahir Qaramati governed Bahrain and Yamamah and the Delam commanders had captured Tabristan while independent states in Andalus, Morocco and North Africa had existed for many years.

In the very first year of Radi Billah's enthronement Imaduddaulah Ali bin Buwayh applied for the documents of authorization for the province of Iran, the caliph sent the document, a royal robe with a flag and the title of Imaduddaulah. He conferred the titles of Ruknuddaulah and Muizzuddaulah to his brothers Hasan and Ahmad respectively. After Mardawih's death, his army was divided into two parts one part went to Imaduddaulah in Iran while the other remained under one of his former commanders named Yahkum.

Yahkum arrived in the Caliph's court and enhanced his influence and was able by manipulation to dominate over all the leaders who kept the caliph's court under their control. He received the title of Amirul Omara, and imposed himself on the caliph and his court and began to act like the ruler. Dashmagir Mardawih's brother left Isfahan to Ruknuddaulah bin Buwayh and captured Azerbaijan. Ruknuddaulah bin Buwayh and Muizzuddaulah bin Buwayh captured Isfahan and Ahwaz respectively. Muhammad bin Raiq snatched Syria from Muhammad bin Tafaj leaving only Egypt for him. During Radi's regime, the caliphate was only a figurehead. During the last period, Yahkum completely dominated the caliph and his court and no one dared to oppose him. He himself lived in Wasit and his head clerk worked as the Prime Minister in the Caliph's court in Baghdad.

Death of Radi Billah

Having ruled for about seven years Caliph Radi Billah died of dropsy in Rabia Awwal 329 A.H. Hearing this news Yahkum gave instructions to his head clerk and in accordance with his orders Ibrahim bin Motazid Billah with the title Muttaqi lillah was enthroned as caliph on 29 Rabia Awwal 329 A.H.

During Radi Billah's regime, Muhammad bin Ali-Shalmaghani known as Ibn Al-Arrafa appeared and claimed to be divine. Many became his disciples but in the very first year of Radi's caliphate, he was caught and killed along with his followers who would not recant his claims. The same year Qaramata looted and plundered Baghdad and Makkah so such an extent that the inhabitants of Baghdad did not perform Hajj and none of them dared go to Hajj until 327 A.H.

In 327 A.H., Abu Tahir Qaramati levied a five dinar tax per camel on the Hujjas. That was the first time pilgrims had to pay a tax for Hajj. The inhabitants of Baghdad paid the tax and performed their Hajj comfortably. Radi was the last caliph who read the Friday sermon himself, all the caliphs after him assigned this job to others.

The Assassination of Caliph Muqtadir and the Rise of the Buwayhid Dynasty

Murder of Muqtadir Billah

Munis captured Mousil in Safar 320 A.H and to rout Sayeed and Dawood the sons of Abdullah bin Hamdan and their nephew Nasiruddaulah Husain bin Abdullah bin Hamdan who were sent to defend Mousil. Then the armies of Baghdad, Syria and Egypt joined Munis because the soldiers were pleased with his generous gifts.

Nasiruddaulah bin Abdullah bin Hamdan joined Munis and stayed with him in Mousil. Nine days after the conquest of Mousil, Munis invaded Baghdad. Intense dissention arose between him and the ministers of the government.

After being defeated Sayeed bin Abdullah went to Baghdad. At the receipt of the news of Munis's attack, armies under the commands of chiefs like Sayeed bin Abdullah bin Hamdan, Abu Bakr Muhammad bin Yaqut and others were sent. When Munis's army approached, the defending soldiers ran back to Baghdad. Without an army, the commanders also went back to Baghdad. Munis reached Baghdad and stayed at one of the city's gates known as Shamasyah. Both sides built fortifications and the battle began. Muqtadir came out and stood on a hillock and the army was fighting in front of him.

The Baghdad army suffered defeat. The Caliph's companions said to him. "Please don't stand in this place. Let us go back." He started to go but was surrounded by a group of Berbers who had joined Munis's army. One of the Berbers shot an arrow that hit Muqtadir. He fell off the horse and the same Berber rushed forward and chopped off his head. He was stripped naked and his body was left there and his head was taken to Munis on the point of a spear. This took place on Tuesday 27 Shawwal 320 A.H.

Munis put Abu Mansoor Muhammad bin Motazid on the throne and chose for him the title Qahir Billah. Ali bin Maqlah was made the minister and Ali bin Baleeq was appointed Hajib. Muqtadir's mother was arrested and forced to part with her money then she was beaten to death. In this way, money was collected from the people by force.

Qahir Billah

Qahir Billah bin Motazid Billah bin Mawaffiq Billah bin Motawakkil was born of a slave-girl named Fitnah. His name was Muhammad and his kunya was Abu Mansoor.

After the murder of Caliph Muqtadir, his son Abdul Wahid along with Haroon bin Ghuraib, Muhammad bin Yaqut and Ibrahim bin Raiq had gone to Madain. He came to Ahwaz via Wasit and Sus. Qahir Billah gave an army to Ali bin Baleeq and sent it to arrest Abdul Wahid and his men.

Consequently, through the efforts of the army commanders and through correspondence Abdul Wahid and his men begged Munis and Qahir Billah for amnesty, which was readily granted and they all went to Baghdad.

The Caliph made Muhammad bin Yaqut his companion which was disliked by the minister Ali bin Maqla. He misguided Munis by telling his that Muhammad bin Yaqut had been trying to ruin him. Munis ordered Baleeq and his son Ali bin Baleeq that caliph to be kept under constant surveillance. Even women visiting the Caliph's palace were body-searched and basically no one was allowed to enter the palace. When the caliph realized that he was under surveillance and rendered powerless, he started conspiring with some army chiefs against Munis.

Munis and his supporters began to make preparations to depose the Caliph and make Abu Ahmad bin Muktafi the caliph. Qahir Billah succeeded in his attempts. Ali bin Baleeq and Munis were arrested and killed. Muhammad bin Yaqut and Abu Jafar Muhammad bin Qasim bin Obaidullah were appointed Hajib and minister respectively. This happened in Shaban 321 A.H.

During the same period, they started looking for Ahmad bin Muktafi who had gone into hiding. He was eventually arrested and buried alive in a wall. The houses of the dead were razed to the ground and their belongings confiscated. After ruling for three and a half months as minister, Abu Jafar was censured and jailed. He died after 18 days in captivity.

The Origin of the Buwayhid Dynasty

As the members of the Buwayhid dynasty are going to be mentioned repeatedly in connection with the Abbasid caliphs, it is pertinent to record the early history of this dynasty. Mention of Atroosh, Hasan bin Ali Zainul Abedeen has already been made. Following Muhammad bin Zaid Alawi's death, Atroosh went to Delam and preached Islam to the people there and continued this missionary work continuously for 13 years in Delam, Tabristan and Egypt and he induced many of them to embrace Islam.

During that time, the ruler of Delam was Hassan. He tried to stop the growing influence of Atroosh but to no avail. Atroosh had mosques built and had the people act upon the Islamic tenets and started collecting taxes. Finally, he formed a body of the converts and armed them. They invaded Qazween and Saloos the border cities, invited the people to Islam and admitted them into the Islamic fold.

The state of Tabristan was a part of the Samani territory. The Samani ruler of Tabristan began to oppress the people. Atroosh goaded the people of Delam to launch an offensive against Tabristan. In 301 A.H., Atroosh formed an army of the Delam people and attacked Tabristan and put to rout the ruler Muhammad bin Ibrahim bin Salook and captured Tabristan.

After Atroosh, his son-in-law Hasan bin Qasim and his descendants captured and ruled over Tabristan, Jurjan, Saryah Amud and Usturabad. Their army commanders were all from Delam. Among them was Lail bin Noman whom Hasan bin Qasim had appointed the ruler of Jurjan. Lail bin Noman was killed while fighting with the Samanis in 309 A.H. After that, the Samanis led several offensives against Bani Atroosh. Those attacks were repulsed by Surkhab, a Delami general, who lost his life in the battle. Surkhab's uncle Makan Ibn Kane Delami ruled over Usturabad on behalf of Bani Atroosh.

Makan collected round him his compatriots from Delam and formed and army and brought Jurjan under his control. One of the Delamis who helped him was the famous chief Asfar bin Shairwaih Delami. Makan set up an independent government and annexed major parts of Tabristan. He got angry with Shairwaih on some issues and expelled him. He then went to Bakr bin Muhammad bin Yasi in Nishapur who was the ruler there on behalf of the Samanis.

Bakr bin Muhammad gave Asfar an army and sent him to conquer Jurjan. Makan lived in Tabristan and his brother Abul Hasan bin Kani was made the ruler there. Abu Ali bin Atroosh was also there and he had no territory to rule over. One day Abu Ali had a deadly opportunity and killed Abul Hasan and the Delami army, which was stationed at Jurjan, took the oath for Abu Ali. Abu Ali then deputed Ali bin Khursheed Delami as ruler of Jurjan.

At this time, Asfar with an army from the Samanis reached near to Jurjan. Ali bin Khursheed wrote to Asfar: "Instead of invading us why don't you join us and attack Makan who is in Tabristan? Asfar sought Bakr bin Muhammad's permission and he agreed.

When Makan bin Kani found out, he took an army from Tabristan and marched to Jurjan. Ali bin Khursheed and Asfar put up a joint resistance and put him to rout and captured Tabristan. Shortly after that both Ali bin Khursheed and Abu Ali bin Atroosh died and Asfar ruled over Tabristan without facing any resistance. Makan took this opportunity and attacked Asfar and gained control over Tabristan. Asfar went to Bakr bin Muhammad in Jurjan.

When Bakr bin Muhammad died in 315 A.H., the Samani ruler deputed Asfar to administer Jurjan. Among Asfar's commanders was Mardawih whom he gave an army and sent him to invade Tabristan. Makan arrayed his forces but lost the battle and Mardawih captured Tabristan. Makan fled and went to Atrooch's son-in-law, Hasan bin Qasim in Rayy.

Having gained control over Tabristan and Jurjan, Asfar introduced in the Friday sermon the name of the ruler of Khorasan and Mawaraunnahr, Nasr bin Ahmad bin Saman. Then he went to Rayy and liberated it. Makan became a landless and went to the mountains of Tabristan. Asfar's rule over the provinces of Rayy, Qazween, Zanjan, Abharqam and Karkh was firmly established and he governed this vast territory very successfully. Asfar decided to be an independent ruler so he revolted against the Samani King and declared his independence.

Hearing this Caliph Muqtadir gave an army to Haroon bin Ghuraib and sent him to take these territories from Asfar but Haroon was defeated. Then Nasr bin Ahmad Samani left Bukhara with an army to punish Asfar. Asfar begged to be excused and promised to pay the taxes. Nasr granted his petition for amnesty and allowed him to retain the Province of Rayy while Nasr returned to Bukhara.

Mardawih, one of Asfar's commanders persuaded other commanders to join him and rebel. He killed Asfar, annexed Hamadan and Isfahan and began to rule over that territory. He called Makan bin Kani and deputed him to govern Tabristan and Jurjan. Then he deposed Makan. Makan went to Delam, collected a group of fighters and invaded Tabristan but was defeated by Mardawih and he fled to Nishapur.

In 319 A.H., Mardawih decided to secure the recognition of his conquered territories from the Abbasid Caliph. He therefore sent an application to the Caliph's court to grant him the letter of governorship of the territories he held in exchange for the payment of two hundred thousand dinars annually. The Caliph granted the application and sent the letter of authorization and gave him another landed estate on his own accord. In 320 A.H., Mardawih called his brother Dashmagir from Gilan. In Dashmagir's territory Abu Shuja Buwayh's three sons were in charge of the boats in that area and it is because of them that these details are being given.

Abu Shuja Buwayh Delami was a very poor fisherman. He eked out his living by catching fish. One night he dreamed that he squatted down to urinate and a flame came out of his penis, which spread and lit the whole world. He interpreted that his descendents would be kings of the area covered by the light. Then three sons were born to him Ali, Hasan and Ahmad. Because these three brothers made much progress later on and chose for their titles Imaduddaulah, Ruknuddaulah and Muizzuddaulah as respectable rulers, some linked their lineage to the King of Iran, Yazd Jurd and some called them the descendants of Bahram Gaur. People generally try to attach wealth and kingship to nobility of birth and sycophants generally prove most useful in connecting power to an impressive family tree.

The act of the three sons of Buwayh the fisherman acquiring wealth and becoming rulers and then linking their lineage to the Iranian kings is not unusual but their real origins are as stated.

When Makan bin Kani recruited the inhabitants of Delam into his army, Buwayh's three sons were amongst them. When Makan met with failure, most of his men went over to Mardawih. Mardawih granted them great honor and appointed them to higher posts than they really deserved, Buwayh's three sons also benefited from this. By virtue of their service, alertness and skill they endeared themselves to him, Mardawih deputed Ali bin Buwayh to rule over Karkh. His younger brothers Hasan and Ahmad also went with him. At that time, Rayy was ruled over by Mardawih's brother Dashmagir. Dashmagir had made Husain bin Muhammad known as Umaid his minister. When Ali bin Buwayh arrived in Rayy, he called on Umaid and presented him with a mule. Then he went to Karkh and began to rule.

When Mardawih was informed of the meeting between Ali bin Buwayh and Umaid and the presentation of the mule, a doubt crossed his mind thinking that the chiefs coming from Makan, who were given good posts and made rulers of cities, might conspire against him and become a problem. Therefore, he wrote to his brother Dashmagir to arrest all those who came from Makan and who were assigned to govern the cities there. Some were arrested but Ali bin Buwayh who had occupied Karkh was not arrested for fear of possible riots.

Ali bin Buwayh captured several forts in the vicinity of Karkh and whatever money and goods he collected in booty he distributed among his soldiers. This endeared him to them. Respect for him and his influence began to rise. In 321 A.H., Mardawih released all those who were under house arrest in Rayy. All of them went to Ali bin Buwayh in Karkh and he honored them.

During the same period a Delami chief, Sherzad, along with a group visited Ali bin Buwayh and induced him to invade Isfahan. When Mardawih found out that all the Delamis had gathered around Ali bin Buwayh, he wrote to send him all the chiefs who had been released. Ali bin Buwayh refused to comply with the order and began to make preparations to invade Isfahan in coalition with Sherzad. Isfahan was being ruled over by Mozaffar bin Yaqut and Abu Ali bin Rustam. Both of them were angry with the Caliph and had rebelled against him.

Ali bin Buwayh invaded Isfahan and put Mozaffar bin Yaqut to rout. Abu Ali bin Rustam died and Ali bin Buwayh gained control over Isfahan. This news plunged Mardawih into a deep anxiety because by then Ali bin Buwayh's power had grown considerably. He sent his brother Dashmagir with an army to Isfahan to punish and discipline Ali bin Buwayh. After receiving this information, Ali left Isfahan and captured Jurjan. This occurred in Thul Hijjah 321 A.H.

Dashmagir captured Isfahan but then handed over Isfahan to Mozaffar bin Yaqut to govern it. Ali bin Buwayh sent his brother Hasan to Gazroon to collect the taxes. He came across Muzaffar bin Yaqut's army on way and defeated it. He collected the taxes and returned to his brother.

Ali bin Buwayh set out towards Astakhar. Ibn Yaqut chased him with a big army and challenged him to fight. They fought and Ali bin Buwayh's brother Ahmad showed extraordinary valor. Muzaffar bin Yaqut lost and retreated to Wasit. Ali bin Buwayh came to Shiraz and captured it and the whole of Iran came under his control. The soldiers whose number had now considerably increased demanded their salaries. Ali did not have enough money to meet their requirements. In a pensive mood, he lay down on the roof of a house. A snake fell off the roof. He ordered the house to be pulled down. When they started demolishing it, boxes full of gold were found. He distributed all the gold among his soldiers. He sent for a tailor to have some new clothes made. The guards brought a tailor who thought he was being arrested. Immediately he said, "I have nothing except a few boxes that I am holding for someone and I have not opened them and do not know their contents." Those boxes were brought and they were found to contain gold coins. Ali bin Buwayh confiscated them too. All this wealth had been left by Muzaffar bin Yaqut who could not carry it with him. By luck during the same period, he discovered the accumulated treasure of the kings of the Saffar Dynasty, which totaled five hundred thousand red dinars.

During the same period, one day he was riding on horseback and the horse's legs sank into the ground. He had the horse's legs dug out and a treasure was found there. In this way, he accumulated a huge treasury and began to rule over Iran very successfully and continued increasing his power rivaling Mardawih and he became a source of great danger for him.

Caliph Muqtadir’s Turmoil, Qaramata’s Rebellion and the Desecration of the Ka'bah

The Oath for the Heir to the Throne

In 301 A.H., Muqtadir declared as heir to the throne his 4-year-old son Abul Abbas first with his title Qahir Billah. He then made him Governor of Egypt and the Western territories and sent him to Egypt under tutelage of his servant Munis.

The same year Hasan bin Ali bin Husain bin Ali bin Omer bin Ali bin Husain bin Ali bin Abi Talib who was known as Atroosh, captured the province of Tabristan. Atroosh worked hard inviting the people of Tabristan and Delam to Islam, the people of these regions embraced Islam by virtue of his sermons and this increased his power until he was able to captured Tabristan.

Atroosh was a Shiite by religion and those who became Muslims due to his efforts took it as their faith. The administrators of Khorasan invaded Tabristan and killed Atroosh in 304 A.H.

In 302 A.H., Obaidullah Mahdi sent his General Khafasha Katami to invade Alexandria. Munis who had already reached Egypt fought against him. After several fierce battles, Mahdi's army retreated and fled back to their territory losing 7,000 men.

In 307 A.H., Obaidullah Mahdi gave a big army to his son Abul Qasim and sent him to launch an attack on Egypt. In suffered defeat at the hands of Munis he returned after many of their commanders were captured.

The same year the Roman king made peace with Muqtadir Billah and in order to strengthen the ties of friendship sent his ambassadors to Baghdad for whose reception grand arrangements were made. In 308 A.H., Obaidullah's army captured a part of Egypt.

Qaramata's Upheaval in Iraq

A group of Qaramata's followers had taken possession of Bahrain as has been stated above. One night in 311 A.H., Qaramata's commander Abu Tahir Sulaiman bin Abi Sayeed Janani, supported by 1,700 men, invaded Basra. By putting ladders against the walls of the city they climbed over them killed the guards, opened the city gate and began a general massacre.

When the Governor of Basra, Subuk Muflihi, got the news, he came out to face them but was killed by Qaramata. Abu Tahir captured Basra, stayed there for 17 days, looted cash and goods, captured women and children and left for Hajar on the 18th day. Caliph Muqtadir heard about this disaster, gave the letter of Governorship to Muhammad bin Abdullah Farooqi and sent him there. Muhammad bin Abdullah reached there after Abu Tahir had left.

In 312 A.H., Abu Tahir took an army and looted the caravans of the pilgrims returning from Makkah and captured Abul Hija bin Hamdani and Muqtadir Billah's maternal uncle Ahmad bin Badr who were with those caravans.

He released them after a few days and demanded the city of Ahwaz. When Caliph Muqtadir refused, Abu Tahir re-started looting the caravans. He sent an army, which was defeated by Abu Tahir. He chased them up to Kufa and after capturing it, stayed there for six days and returned to Hajar with a huge quantity of cash and goods.

No one dared to perform Hajj for fear of Qaramata in 313 A.H. In 314 A.H., Caliph Muqtadir recalled Yusuf bin Abu Saj from Azerbaijan and made him the ruler of the eastern countries and asked him to fight against Abu Tahir and the Qaramata. There was no confrontation that year. In Ramadan 315 A.H., Abu Tahir along with his army went to Kufa. Yusuf left Wasit to save Kufa but Abu Tahir reached Kufa a day earlier and captured it. Yusuf came and started a battle. His army was defeated by Abu Tahir and retreated. Yusuf was wounded and captured. Abu Tahir deputed a physician for his treatment.

When the news reached Baghdad, Caliph sent Munis. Abu Tahir had left for Ain Tamr before Munis reached there. Abu Tahir left Kufa, captured Ambar and put the army to rout. Finally, Nasr Hajib left Baghdad, joined Munis and with 40,000 soldiers attacked the Qaramata but they were defeated. Abu Tahir killed Yusuf who was in captivity.

This defeat sent shock waves throughout Baghdad. The people began to leave for safer places. In the beginning, Abu Tahir left Ambar, looted Rahba and for one day and one night, he declared the killings of the people of Rahba as lawful.

The inhabitants of Qarqisya watched the horrible sight of the massacre and begged for amnesty, which was granted by Abu Tahir. He then sent military units to various areas to launch night attacks. After three days of continued fighting, he conquered Riqqah and was firmly established in the province of Jazirah. Armies left Baghdad to fight with him but in vain.

In 316 A.H., Qaramata went to Hajar. Then after a few days, they caused terror in Sawad, Wasit and Ain Tamr. Caliph Muqtadir deputed Haroon bin Ghuraib, Safi Basri and Ibn Qais to punish them. Qaramata's groups were vanquished and they fled and peace was restored there.

Roman Tyranny

In 314 A.H., the Romans conquered Lamtiyah. In 315 A.H., they captured Dimyat, plundered the city and had the horn sounded in the central mosque (the horn being and insult). The same year the inhabitants of Delam invaded Rayy and Gibal and killed thousands of men, the Romans captured Khalat, removed the place for giving the sermon from the grand mosque and put a cross in its place and made it into a Church.

Deposition and Restoration of Muqtadir

In 317 A.H., Munis alias Muzaffar deposed Muqtadir. Muqtadir wanted to appoint Haroon bin Ghuraib Hajib in place of Munis. When Munis found out, he took an army and most of the members of the government and invaded the palace, arrested Muqtadir and installed as caliph Muhammad bin Muqtadir with the title Qahir Billah. Everyone took the oath for his Caliphate and the Governors were duly informed by letter.

The next day the army created a scene because of a delay in their reward money. They went to Munis's house in search of Muqtadir, bringing him out they put him on their shoulders and took him to the palace and brought Qahir Billah to him under arrest. Seeing him Muqtadir said, "Don't be afraid. You were not at fault." The people were pacified. Then Governors were again informed that Muqtadir Billah was the Caliph as before. Muqtadir pleased them by bestowing on them gifts and honor.

Qaramata's Atrocities in Makkah

Qaramata's rule in Bahrain was firmly established. Their commander was Abu Tahir. They read the name of Obaidullah Mahdi, the ruler of Africa, in their Friday sermon and recognized him as their caliph. In 318 A.H., Abu Tahir went to Makkah with his army during the season of Hajj. Mansoor Delami was sent as leader of the pilgrimage from Baghdad. He reached Makkah safely on 8 Thul Hijjah. Abu Tahir arrived on 9 Thul Hijjah and immediately after his arrival began to slay the Hujjaj and loot their belongings.

He did not hesitate in killing people even inside the holy sanctuary of the Ka'bah and threw the dead bodies in the well of Zamzam, removed the Black Stone from the wall of the Ka'bah and broke its door.

Muhammad bin Rabi bin Sulaiman says: "I was present in Makkah during the disaster. I saw a man climb on the roof of the Ka'bah to pull down the arch. I said, O Allah! I cannot stand the sight. That man's feet slipped he fell down and died instantly." Abu Tahir looted the people of Makkah for 11 days, loaded the black stone on a camel and started for Hajr (the capital of Bahrain). 40 camels one after another died carrying the black stone between Makkah and Hajr. It remained under Qaramata's possession for 22 years. He was offered 50,000 dinars for it but he would not part with it.

At the end of Motiullah's caliphate, the black stone was taken back from him and set in the Ka'bah again. On the return journey, only a single camel carried it from Hajr to Makkah. When these atrocities and desecrations were narrated to the ruler of North Africa, Obaidullah he wrote a denunciatory letter to Abu Tahir and insisted the return the goods to the Makkans. Abu Tahir returned part of the goods but he did not return the black stone. It was not put back in its place until 339 A.H.

The Rise of the Fatimid Dynasty and Caliph Muqtadir Billah

Invasions by the Turks and the Romans

In 291 A.H., the Romans with an army of 100,000 invaded the Islamic territories but they did not succeed. The border commanders put them to rout. In 293 A.H., a new group of invaders appeared, that is the Turks who lived in the northern mountains and forests of Mawaraunnahr. It was the first major attack from this side. The number of these barbaric invaders was staggering.

Ismail Samani, the governor of Mawaraunnahr, acted with courage and perseverance, collected all his forces and taught the invaders a good lesson. Thousands were killed and arrested and the remainder escaped. The same year the Romans begged the Muslims for amnesty and prisoners were exchanged as a good lesson. However, soon after this reconciliation they led a night attack on the city of Quras. Thousands of Muslims were killed and captured being caught off-guard. They burnt down the central mosque and returned to Roman territory. The same year Ismail Samani captured some parts of Delam and the territories of the Turks by force. In 294 A.H., the Muslims invaded the Roman territories from Tartoos and captured many Romans including a Prelate who willingly embraced Islam.

The Death of Muktafi Billah

After ruling for six years and six months Muktafi Billah breathed his last in Baghdad on Jamad Awwal 295 A.H. and was buried in Muhammad bin Tahir's house. He had made his brother Jafar his heir-apparent before he died. He left 15 million dinars in the treasury at the time of his death. Jafar bin Motazid was 13. After coming to the throne, he called himself Muqtadir Billah.

Muqtadir Billah

The real name of Muqtadir Billah bin Motazid Billah was Jafar and his kunya was Abul Fadl. He was born of a Roman slave girl Ghuralb. When Muktafi Billah consulted the people on his heir to the throne just before his death, they assured him that his brother Muqtadir Billah had come of age of puberty and only then did he make him his heir-apparent. Before this, no Caliph of such a young age had come to the throne. After his accession, the people began to talk about his abdication. As Prime Minister, Abbas bin Hasan's powers were great and he had been authorized to use the treasury, this caused the members of the government to be apprehensive. The Prime Minister was also not pleased at a boy assuming power. He therefore persuaded Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Motaz to accept the caliphate. While they were preparing for Muqtadir's abdication and Muhammad Motaz's accession, Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Motaz died. Then arrangements were made to put Abul Husain bin Motawakkil on the throne but he also died. Due to his and Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Motaz's deaths, Caliph Muqtadir's position was firmly established.

After sometime, they started gossiping again and the members of the government wanted to persuade Abdullah bin Motaz to accept the caliphate. He agreed to it provided there should be no bloodshed and all the members of the government also agreed to it. However, Prime Minister Abbas bin Hasan did not agree to it. On 20 Rabia Awwal 296 A.H. while the Prime Minister was going to his garden, he was suddenly attacked and killed. The next day the deposition of Muqtadir was announced and the oath for Abdullah bin Motaz took place. At that time, Caliph Muqtadir was playing polo. Having heard about his deposition, he went to his palace and closed the doors.

Soon after coming to the throne Abdullah bin Motaz chose Al-Murtaza Billah as his title and wrote to Muqtadir, "You will be safe if you leave the capital and give up the desire for the caliphate." Muqtadir replied: "I gladly agree to what you say but give me time until this evening."

At night, the servant Munis consulted other servants on how to create a disturbance. When Husain bin Hamdan came to the palace door in the morning, they showered arrows on him. They continued doing this until the evening. At night, others began to join Muqtadir's group. As a consequence, the new Caliph, Abdullah bin Motaz, along with some of his supporters had to go into hiding. Muqtadir then appointed Abul Hasan bin Forat as Prime Minister. Abdullah bin Mutaz was arrested and killed.

The same year in Rabia Thani 296 A.H., the oath for Obaidullah Mahdi took place in Africa and thus the Obadiah (Fatimid) dynasty was founded and the Aghlab dynasty came to an end in North Africa.

The Origin of the Obadiah (Fatimid) Dynasty

The first ruler Obaidullah Mahdi claimed to be the son of Muhammad bin Jafar bin Muhammad bin Ismail bin Jafar Sadiq. The Abbasids questioned his lineage. He in fact was originally a Zoroastrian and some have called him a Christian.

The well-known judge, Qadi Abu Bakr Baqillani, has refuted Obaidullah Mahdi's claim to be from the Prophet's family or to being of a high lineage. During Caliph Qahir Billah's regime when the question of his lineage was under consideration, renowned scholars clearly denounced Obaidullah Mahdi's claim to be an Alawiite. These scholars include Abul Abbas Abyuzah, Abu Hamid Asfaraini and Abu Jafar Nasfi Qudoori. Among the Alawiites Murtada Ibn Bathawi and Ibn Azraq have also called him a fraud in his claim. He was a Shiite however, the scholars of the Shiites have rebutted his claim to be an Alawi. Furthermore, Abu Abdullah Ibn Noman has also called him a liar in his claim to be an Alawi. The chief of the historians Sheikh Jalaluddin Suyuti has very emphatically proved him to be false in his claim to be of a well-known family. He has proved him to be of Zoroastrian heritage.

However, a very great scholar of history, Ibn Khaldoon has attempted to prove him to be an Alawiite. In both his introduction to history and in his history book Ibn Khaldoon has given recognition to his claim of noble lineage. However, the arguments he has offered in this respect are very unusual. He writes, "A great dynasty was established in Obaidullah's family. Had he not been an Alawi, the people would not have recognized his leadership and given away their heads under his flag."

Offering such arguments as proof of someone's noble birth is certainly not scientific and the reality is that he has not given even a single proof in this respect. As he himself was a West Acrican, naturally he does not like a western ruler to be discredited. Similarly, he exerts much effort to prove the sultanate of Idrisids of Morocco to be Alawi. He tries his level best to prove Idris II to be son of Idris I and unnecessarily brings into discussion the chastity of a Berber woman. The misunderstanding may possibly be a sin against the Imam in question.

With the beginning of Abbasid caliphate the Alwis antagonistic activities began against the administration. The Alwis rose again and again and every time they met with failure. Abdullah bin Saba, the Jew had sown the seed of discord among the people and conspiracies against the administration. Their nefarious plan was aided and abetted by the Magi, Jews, Berbers etc. who were carrying out their activities in the garb of neo-Muslims. And when Abbasid dynasty showed signs of weakness some Jews and Magis tried to present themselves as Alwis to benefit from the flowing situation. Since Berber territories were far distant from Baghdad, the centre of power due advantage could be taken of their inherent nature. Thus, a person named Muhammad Habib who lived at Salmia in Homs towards the end of the third century Hajara came on the scene as one descending from Imam Jafar Sadiq's elder son Isma'il. He tried to cash in on his relation with the Imam. Right from his time Imam Jafar Sadiq's influence had spread throghout Yemen, Africa and Morocco. He used all his means, devices and force to turn the people to expect the arrival of Imam Mahdi in immediate future who were to be from among the Alwi Fatimi. Habib sent one of his confidants Rustam bin Hasan bin Haushab to Yemen to convince people of the arrival of Imam Mahdi in near future. He performed his duty with utmost care and tact.

Following this a man named Abu Abdullah Hasan bin Muhammad bin Zakariya, a Shi'ite by faith, and a staunch support of the Alwis came to Habib. He found him promising and sent him, after necessary instructions, to keep company with Rustam bin Hasan for a few days and learn from him the art of preaching and then go to Berber territories to perform his duty. Muhammad Habib had also told Abu Abdullah that his son, Ubaidullah was Imam Mahdi and that he was being sent as one inviting people towards him. Abu Abdullah arrived in Yemen, took lesson in preaching and reached Makkah in Hajj season.

There he sought out the caravan of the Hajjis from Katama and became friendly with them. Observing how pious he was they revered and served him.

When they set out towards Africa after the Hajj, he accompanied them. They took it as an auspicious sign. Reaching Katama, they had a house built for him on Mount Ankajan, which they called Fajjul Akhyar. He told them that the Mahdi was about to appear and that he was instructed by him to stay in Katama and he had told him that his supporters would be from there. Gradually Abu Abdullah's government and leadership became established in Katama.

When the news reached Ibrahim bin Ahmad bin Aghlab, the Governor of North Africa, at the capital Qairwan, he wrote to the ruler of Melah to give him a report about Abu Abdullah. He wrote back that he was an ascetic and instructed the people to perform their prayers and observe fast. Ibrahim was silent after hearing this. After a few days Abu Abdullah armed and fortified his group and invaded Melah city, expelled the governor and captured it. Ibrahim bin Aghlab then gave an army to his son Ahwal and sent him to Melah. Abu Abdullah suffered defeat and fled to Katama and took refuge on Mount Ankajan. Ahwal left for Qairwan.

Meanwhile the ruler of North Africa, Ibrahim bin Ahmad died. His son Abul Abbas then succeeded to the throne. Abu Abdullah founded and populated a city named Darul Hajarah. Ahwal went to mount Ankajan to punish him. Meanwhile Abul Abbas died and his son Zeyadatullah came to the throne.

Zeyadatullah recalled Ahwal and killed him on some false pretext. Abu Abdullah continued to increase his power. He sent a delegation of people from Katama to Obaidullah Mahdi in Homs where he was staying. He briefed him about his victories and asked him to come to North Africa.

Some spies informed Caliph Muktafi Billah about the arrival of the delegation carrying the said message. He at once issued a warrant for the arrest of Obaidullah and wrote to the Egyptian governor Isa Naushri (then Governor of Egypt after the downfall of the Tuloons) to arrest him. [This has also been taken by Ibn Khaldoon as a proof of Obaidullah being a Sayed (from the Prophet's family), indicating that if he had not been of the Prophet's family, the caliph would not have given orders for his arrest. This is another very weak proof, any government would arrest those who desired to over throw their rule and it is not evidence as to the heritage of any conspirator.] The rulers of the Aghlab dynasty recognized the leadership of the Abbasid caliphate and read the name of the Abbasid Caliph in the Friday sermons. They bordered Egypt so how could Muktafi stand the creation of any major disturbance in North Africa with out responding?

Obaidullah left Homs with his son and his supporters. He disguised himself as a merchant and joined a commercial caravan. He was caught in Egypt but Naushri released him based on incomplete information. He passed through Egypt and entered North Africa. Zeyadatullah's spies were after him but he managed to conceal himself from them until he reached Sijilmassa. The administrator of the place caught him and jailed him along with his son. Zeyadatullah was drowned in debauchery and neglected state administration and consequently Abu Abdullah the Shiite's power continued to increase and nothing was done to deter him. When Zeyadatullah saw that Abu Abdullah the Shiite had captured the major parts of North Africa and continued to do so, he collected a huge army and sent it to punish him.

Abu Abdullah could not stand the pressure of such a huge army and climbed up the peak of a high mountain. He remained besieged there for six months. In the seventh month, he led a successful night attack on the North African army and put it to rout and then began to conquer city after city. Zeyadatullah then sent another commander to fight against him but he was defeated. In 295 A.H. after making special arrangements, he sent his armies and Generals to discipline Abu Abdullah however, he had already established his power. For a year the chain of battles continued. Sometimes Abu Abdullah was defeated and sometimes he defeated the African army. During this period, Abu Abdullah's group kept multiplying and people kept on joining him while Zeyadatullah's army was becoming smaller. One city after another continued to come under Abu Abdullah's control until Zeyadatullah's army commanders started joining him. Urwah bin Yusuf and Hasan bin Abi Khazir joined him and were appointed to important posts. In Rajab 296 A.H., Abu Abdullah captured the capital Qairwan and put Zeyadatullah to rout and let the people of Katama stay in the royal palaces. He then invaded Sijilmassa, defeated the Governor Yasa' bin Madar, captured and killed him. He then took Obaidullah Mahdi out of the jail and put him on a horse and went to the army camp declaring to all, "This is your leader," referring to the Mahdi. He then left and came to the city of Rafadah. Abu Abdullah and all others took the oath for Obaidullah and called him Al-Mahdi Amir al-Muminin. This oath took place in the last ten days of Rabia Thani 296 A.H. and it marks the beginning of the Obadiah dynasty (Fatimids).

Soon after coming to the throne, Obaidullah Mahdi sent his missionaries to every corner of the territory. Those who refused to accept his religion were killed. He gave feudal estates and important posts to the people of Katama. He sent Hasan bin Abl Khazir to Sicily as its ruler. He reached there on 10 Thul Hijjah 297 A.H. and made all the subjects of the island hate him because of his tyranny.

He began to appoint governors and administrators in the whole of North Africa. In 299 A.H., the people of Sicily sent a letter to Obaidullah Mahdi complaining against Hasan bin Abi Khazir. He sent Ali bin Omar as Governor in his place. The civilians were displeased with him too. They deposed him and chose Ahmad bin Mohib as their leader. Ahmad bin Mohib induced the people to obey the Abbasid Caliph Muqtadir Billah. He expunged Mahdi's name from the Friday sermon and entered Muqtadir's name in his place and sent a war fleet to the North African coast.

Obaidullah Mahdi sent a war fleet under Husain bin Ali bin Khazir's command to defend the coast. The fleets clashed and Ibn Khazir had killed and Obaidullah Mahdi's fleet was destroyed by the ships from Sicily.

When the news reached Baghdad, Caliph Muqtadir dispatched black robes and flags to Ahmad bin Mohib and for one year the name of the Abbasid Caliph was read in the Friday sermon in Sicily. Obaidullah Mahdi prepared a powerful war fleet and sent it to Sicily, which broke Ahmad bin Mohib's power. The people of Sicily arrested him and sent him along with his men to Obaidullah Mahdi and he begged for forgiveness. Obaidullah Mahdi ordered Ahmad bin Mohib and his men to be taken to Ibn Khazir grave and killed. This occurred in 300 A.H.

Caliph Muktafi Billah: Defeat of the Qaramata, Fall of the Tuloon Dynasty and Rise of Banu Hamdan

Death of Motazid Billah

In 289 A.H., Caliph Motazid died of overindulgence in sex. He suffered from a number of diseases. While the doctor was feeling his pulse, Motazid kicked him so hard that the doctor was knocked down and died. Motazid breathed his last at the same moment.

Motazid was survived by 4 sons and 11 daughters. Motazid died at the end of Rabia Awwal 289 A.H.

Muktafi Billah

The first name of Muktafi Billah bin Motazid Billah bin Mawaffiq Billah bin Motawakkil Alallah bin Motasim Billah bin Haroon Rasheed was Ali and his kunya was Abu Muhammad. He was born of a Turk slave girl the named Jeejak. There have been only two Caliphs bearing the name Ali, one Ali (RA) and the other Muktafi Billah. Motazid Billah had made him his heir-apparent.

When Motazid died, Muktafi was in Riqqah and Badr the slave was in Iran. Prime Minister Qasim bin Obaidullah took the oath from the people in the name of Muktafi and sent the information to him in Riqqah. Muktafi entered Baghdad on 7 Jumad Awwal and gave Prime Minister Qasim seven royal robes. Muktafi was just, even tempered and handsome, minister Qasim bin Obaidullah did not want any of Muktafi's sons to be Caliph Motazid's he wanted somebody else from the Abbasids to follow Muktafi.

Badr objected and his opposition made the minister give up the idea. When Muktafi came to the throne, he thought that if Badr informed the Caliph of his intention, the Caliph would turn against him. He made a plan to misguide the Caliph before Badr's arrival. He called all the leaders who were with Badr in Iran. When Badr left Iran and came to Wasit, the minister sent an army to Wasit. Badr wanted to present himself to the Caliph and prove his innocence. The minister made the Caliph extremely angry with Badr and consequently he was killed before he entered Baghdad.

Badr was very wise, brave and was a good manager. His murder was unjust like the murder of Harsima bin Ayun that took place during the early period of Mamoon Rasheed's caliphate. Muhammad Haroon, a rebel chief of Ismail Samani, captured Rayy and Caliph Muktafi sent an army, which was routed by Muhammad bin Haroon. Then Caliph Muktafi Billah gave authority over Rayy to Ismail Samani and he captured Rayy. Muhammad Haroon was defeated and fled he was later captured and Ismail Samani put him in jail where he died in Shaban 290 A.H.

Qaramata's Attack on Syria

It has been stated above that Qaramata and his followers had captured Bahrain. Then they surfaced in Kufa but they were defeated there. Qaramata then went to Damascus and repeatedly defeated the governor of Damascus named Tafaj and then besieged the city. Qaramata's tyranny in Damascus forced Muktafi Billah to leave Baghdad and go to Riqqah this occurred in 290 A.H. Commander Muhammad bin Sulaiman, was given an army and sent to Damascus to punish Qaramata. Muhammad bin Sulaiman fought with Qaramata valiantly. The commander of Qaramata Abul Qasim Yahya known as Zakarrya was caught on 6 Muharram 291 A.H. Many of Qaramata's men were killed and captured and the rest fled. Zakarrya was brought as a captive to Muktafi in Riqqah who had him killed.

After Zakarrya's capture, his brother Husain collected the Qaramata and created unrest. He was also killed. Husain Qaramati called himself Amir al-Muminin Mahdi. His cousin Isa chose Mudassir as his title and gave the impression that the Quranic verse Mudassir referred to his name. In short, in 291 A.H., all of them were killed one by one and thus this evil in Syria was put to an end. However, Qaramata went to Yemen and created trouble there.

The End of Bani Tuloon in Egypt

When Muktafi was free from the war with Qaramata, he left Riqqah and went to Baghdad. The greater part of Syria was included in the jurisdiction of Haroon bin Khomarwaih bin Ahmad bin Tuloon. Neither the Caliph nor Muhammad bin Sulaiman had a mind to fight with him. The movement of the Caliph and dispatching his forces were not only for the sake of protecting his government but also for supporting the king of Egypt, Haroon. Muhammad bin Sulaiman was originally a working leader of the Tuloon dynasty but due to some grievance, he went over to the Caliph's side. On the way to Baghdad, he received a letter from Badr Hamami who was a slave of Haroon bin Khomarwaih.

Badr Hamami had written: "At this time the sultanate of Bani Tuloon is in a shambles. It has become weak and is disintegrating. If you come here with your forces and invade Egypt, I am ready to help you with my men."

Muhammad Sulaiman went to Baghdad with the letter and gave it to Caliph Muktafi. He gave Muhammad bin Sulaiman an army and sent him to Egypt. Muhammad Sulaiman reached there and began a chain of battles.

Badr Hamami sided with Muhammad Sulaiman. Haroon bin Khomarwaih was killed and Muhammad Sulaiman conquered Egypt. All the members of Tuloon dynasty were arrested and sent to Baghdad. This occurred in Safar in 292 A.H. Isa Naushri was made governor by the Caliph and sent to Egypt. Muhammad bin Sulaiman handed over the authority to him and returned to Baghdad. Meanwhile one of the chiefs friendly to Bani Tuloon, general Ibrahim Khilji dethroned Isa Naushri, and captured Egypt. An army was sent from Baghdad, which suffered defeat at first but later Ibrahim was defeated and arrested and sent to jail in Baghdad. The same year the Caliph gave Mozaffar bin Hajj the Governorship of Yemen and sent him there to quell the uproar created by Qaramata.

Bani Hamdan

In 292 A.H., Caliph Muktafi gave the governorship of Mousil and to Abul Hija Abdullah bin Hamdan bin Hamdoon Adwi Taghlibe. He arrived in Mousil in Muharram 293 A.H. Soon after his arrival, the Kurds revolted. Abul Hija left Egypt with an army to confront them but was defeated. He went to Mousil and asked the Caliph for reinforcements. The army was sent and in Rabia Awwal 294 A.H. Abul Hija attacked the Kurds. They were terrified and took refuge in the Saleeq Mountains. The siege and fighting continued for a long period. Eventually, the Kurdish leader Muhammad bin Hilal begged for amnesty, which was granted. Abul Hija established his superiority over the entire province and all the Kurds became obedient, he then revolted against the caliph. The caliph at this time was Muqtadir, who sent his servant Munis against him. He arrested Abul Hija and brought him to Baghdad. He was excused and began to live in Baghdad. Abul Hija and his brother Husain along with their other relatives were then arrested and sent to jail. They were released in 305 A.H.