Rome and Persia: The Rise of Islam and the Changing Balance of Power

Rome and Persia

There were two fabulously magnificent and large empires existing at the time of the advent of the Prophet (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم), the Roman and the Persian. The world was then ruled by these two civilizations. Arabia was steeped in dismal darkness where the last Prophet (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم) was raised. It was through Islam that a new power and a new civilization emerged and engulfed the glittering civilizations of both Rome and Persia and left its mark as the only important power.

There was a time when the Persian Empire had in its fold the Mediterranean Sea, the Black Sea, the Persian Gulf, the Indus River, Kashmir, Tibet, Mount Altai and the Caspian Sea. Alexander the Great of Greece tore this large and grand empire to pieces. But Persian culture and civilization were still going strong. About four hundred years before the advent of the Prophet (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم), Ardsher Babkan laid the foundation of the Sassanid dynasty and brought under its control the Persian Gulf, the Euphrates, the Caspian Sea, the Indus, Oxus and the whole continent of Asia.

The center of Roman power was Rome, the city of Italy, which was ruled over by Julius Caesar and his heir Augustus. Egypt, Asia Minor and the whole of Europe formed part of the Roman Empire. It was later divided into two parts. While Rome remained the capital of the western part, the eastern part made Constantinople its capital. The king of Constantinople was also called Caesar and he ruled over Egypt, Abyssinia, Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor and the Balkans. The Eastern Roman Rule was far ahead of Western Rome in grandeur and power. The two parts had no natural border between them and so they were occasionally at war with one another.

At the time of the birth of the Prophet (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم), Nushirwan Sassani was the emperor of Persia and his grandson Chosroes (Khosrau) was the ruler when Muhammad (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم) was honored with Prophethood. Rebellion broke out against Caesar Publius, his nobles and the subjects dethroned and killed him. Heraclius, the son of the governor of African territories was enthroned in Constantinople as the Caesar. In the meantime the Persians and the Romans rose up against each other and the war between the two dragged on for six or seven years. During the eighth year of Prophethood, the Persians conquered Syria and took away the Cross when they captured Bait-ul-Maqdis (Jerusalem).

The polytheists of Makkah expressed wild jubilation at the victory of the Persians, for the Persians were polytheists while the Romans were people of the Book. The Muslims naturally had sympathy for the Romans, so it was sad news for them. Allah the Almighty revealed the Verses of Surat Ar-Rum and let them know that although Rome had been defeated at that time, but in a few years they would gain victory to the rejoicing of the Muslims and so it happened. Heraclius rose from the position of defeat and frustration and after preparing for six or seven years with indomitable courage and determination, took his revenge on the Persians on the battlefield of Syria.

The Romans defeated the Persians on one hand, and about the same time, the Makkan disbelievers tasted a crushing defeat at the hands of the Muslims on the other. Thus the prophecy of the Quran came true word for word. And with this, started a new spate of battles between the two rivals, which came to an end only in 7 AH, when they at last made peace after large-scale bloodshed and destruction. After winning peace, both of them set out on the way to progress and prosperity. It was the same year that the Prophet (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم) sent invitation letters to a number of monarchs.

Chosroes of Persia received the letter from the Prophet (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم) at Madain and he tore it up with disdain, while Heraclius of the Roman Empire showed due respect to it. Not only did Chosroes show disrespect to the letter of the Prophet (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم) but he sent word to his governor Badhan in Yemen to round up the Arabian Prophet and send him to Madain. Badhan sent two persons to Al-Madinah who appeared before the Prophet (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم) and informed him of the royal order. The Prophet (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم) said, "Chosroes, whom you treat as your god, has been killed by his son last night." When both of them went back to Badhan they came to know that Chosroes was killed by his son, Sherweh.

The assassination of Chosroes took place the same night the Prophet (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم) referred to as the night when Badhan, the governor of Yemen embraced Islam. With his acceptance of Islam, the religion of Allah spread rapidly in the whole country. The Prophet (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم) approved Badhan as the governor of Yemen. Sherweh was too deeply preoccupied with his internal problems to turn towards the Muslims and Arabia. After many turns of events, Puran, the daughter of Chosroes Pervez and the sister of Sherweh took the throne but could rule the country only for one year. The Prophet (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم) passed away during her time. After many successors, Yazdgurd was on the throne of Persia when it fell to the Muslims. In short, the lofty palace of the Persian Empire kept decaying day by day from the time the letter of the Prophet (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم) was torn up with disrespect.

The Persians, being polytheists, were most arrogant and haughty. They looked down upon the Arabs and particularly the Muslims, since the news of their strength and patience was a source of constant mental trouble for them, they wanted to uproot them completely. But Allah the Almighty had entangled them so deeply in family feuds that they had no chance to look towards Arabia.

The Jews and hypocrites who were turned out of Al-Madinah, constantly sent messages to the Persians and the Romans to attack Muslims in Al-Madinah. Since the Heraclius' court was free from such plotting and counter-plotting, he was in a position to implement the conspiratorial suggestions of the hypocrites and the Jews of Al-Madinah.

The time when the Prophet (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم) had sent his letter to Heraclius, he had also dispatched letters to Busra and Damascus. But both the rulers ill-treated the emissaries of the Prophet (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم). Shurahbil, the sub ruler of Busra had gone to the extent that he put the emissary to death. In the battle of Mutah, Heraclius was on the side of Shurahbil Ghassani. Following this, the Romans invaded Arabia and the Prophet (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم) went to Tabuk along with his army. But the Romans evaded the battle.

The news of the Prophet's death stirred the atmosphere throughout Arabia and this sad news brought both the Romans and Persians to heave a sigh of relief. Since Arabia had risen on the map of the world for the first time as a country wielding, unity, courage, power and influence, the Romans and the Persians could not but watch it with a shade of care and anxiety. The tempest of apostasy added fuel to the flames, with the result the Romans and the Persians began to collect their forces in Syria and Iraq respectively. It was the height of wisdom, prudence, military acumen and the courage of conviction of Abu Bakr (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ), which guided him to first eradicate apostasy and then galvanize the whole country into fighting back the forces hostile to Islam. It was due to the sterling qualities of the illustrious personality of Abu Bakr Siddiq (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ), the first Caliph of the Prophet of Allah (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم), that he guided the destiny of Islam with unparalleled determination, firmness, conviction and trust in such crucial moments, which had brought soul-stirring challenges to the very existence of Islam, immediately after the final departure of the Prophet of Allah (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم).

The Complete Eradication of Apostasy: Campaigns in Oman, Mahrah and Yemen

Laqit bin Malik

It has been mentioned above that Abu Bakr Siddiq (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) had sent Hudhaifah (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) bin Mihsan (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) to Oman and Arfajah bin Harthamah (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) to the people of Mahrah with the order that they should keep together. On hearing the news of the death of the Prophet (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم), Laqit declared his prophethood in Oman. The people of Oman and Mahrah turned apostate and forced out of their territory the collectors of charity appointed by the Prophet (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم). Abu Bakr (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) had sent a message to Hudhaifah (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) bin Mihsan (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) Himyari (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) to first go to Oman and then leave for Mahrah after finishing his task. He had also directed Ikrimah (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) to join Hudhaifah (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) and Arfajah (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) in Oman. Thus all the three commanders of the Muslim detachments stayed together in Oman. On being informed, Laqit collected his fighters and moved ahead to face the Muslim army. Ikrimah bin Abu Jahl was the head of the advance guard while Hudhaifah (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) had the command of the right wing and Arfajah the left one and in the middle of the army were the rich and influential persons of Oman who had been firm on Islam.

Fighting broke out at the time of the dawn prayer. The Islamic army was fighting from the low-lying areas while the enemy force was giving battle from the high ground. At the outset the Muslim troops suffered reverses but the proverbial patience and firmness of the believers turned the tables and forced the enemy to retreat. They turned and ran away leaving behind a thousand dead, four thousand as captive and a large quantity of booty. The Muslim army returned to Al-Madinah victoriously. Ikrimah (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) left for Mahrah and after a short period of time, the entire Oman returned firmly to Islam.

Apostasy in Mahrah

Mahrah had some people from Oman and some others from Abdul-Qais, Azd and Banu Saad tribes that inhabited this territory. But they were divided in two factions after turning apostate, each faction fighting with the other. In this situation Ikrimah (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) arrived in Mahrah and one of the factions accepted Islam. The next one, whose head was Musabbih, rejected the offer and remained adamant in his attitude. Thereupon Ikrimah (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) attacked the apostates giving them a crushing defeat and killing their chief. This victory led a large number of people from all the tribes to join the forces of Islam.

Apostasy in Yemen

Aswad Ansi, referred to before, had claimed prophethood for himself and created disturbances all over Yemen. But he met his doom during the lifetime of the Prophet (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم). Although Islam had been gaining ground after the cloud of apostasy cleared, the death of the Prophet (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم) let it stage a comeback. They were now getting strong under the leadership of two chiefs, Qais bin Makshuh and Amr bin Madikarib (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ). The Muslims were small in numbers and were brutally tortured by the Yemeni apostates, with the result they had left the area. Abu Bakr Siddiq (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) had sent Muhajir bin Abu Umayyah (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) with a detachment to pass through Makkah and Ta'if and then to go to Najran taking Muslim fighters from these cities. Qais and Amr had already received the news of Muhajir's arrival. Amr bin Madikarib (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) was a well known wrestler whose swordsmanship had won him admiration throughout the country.

Muhajir (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) saw himself and his army surrounded by a swarm of enemy forces and this infused in them a sense of courage, fervor and determination, and they attacked the enemy with full force and vigor. The chieftains, Qais and Amr were caught after a thorough defeat of the enemy troops. Qais and Amr were sent to Al-Madinah and both of them admitted their wrongs and returned to Islam.

Muhajir bin Umayyah (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) reached San'a' and cleared the entire territory of apostates. It was there that Ikrimah bin Abu Jahl met him. From there both the commanders made a joint march to punish Banu Kindah who were busy making large-scale preparations against the Muslims under the command of Ash'ath bin Qais and their strength was increasing day by day. Informed of this, Muhajir bin Abu Umayyah (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) took a fast squad of horsemen from his army and hurried towards Ash'ath leaving his army under the command of Ikrimah (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ). He attacked the enemy force so suddenly and violently that they fled in terror. Ash'ath made a quick escape and took refuge in a fort where he was joined by other apostates. Muhajir bin Abu Umayyah (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) besieged the fort. In the meantime he was joined by Ikrimah (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ).

The severity of the siege and the blockade of reinforcements forced him to lay down his arms. He then appealed to the Muslim commander to spare the lives of only nine persons including his wife and children. But Ash'ath forgot to include his own name. Thus all, exclusive of those nine persons were held captive. Ash'ath was also among the captives. They were presented before Abu Bakr (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ), Ash'ath expressed regret for his past deeds and accepted Islam on the spot. Abu Bakr Siddiq (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) set free all the captives including Ash'ath issuing them strong warnings not to repeat their past actions.

Complete Eradication of Apostasy

Abu Bakr Siddiq (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) was able to put down all the uprisings of apostasy in less than one year. Now the entire Arab Peninsula was free from the filth of polytheism and apostasy. Not a tinge of malaise of this nature was to be traced anywhere within the bounds of Arabian continent. Only a few months before, the sky of Islam looked cloudy everywhere except Al-Madinah, Makkah and Ta'if, and swords and spears, lances and arrows seemed to be flying everywhere. However, in this very short period the situation turned around completely.

It was unflinching courage and unyielding determination that faced the hostile storm and stress on all fronts and came out victorious in all events. Even the legendary grit and valor of Rustam and Isphandiyar could not come face to face with the hundredth part of what was shown by Abu Bakr Siddiq (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ). And the reason is that the qualities of head and heart displayed by the Caliph of the Prophet (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم) were the direct result of his upbringing under the blessed shadow of the (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم) (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم).

The army of Siddiq (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) had no doubt, matchless men of lasting courage like Khalid, Ikrimah, Shurhabil, and Hudhaifah (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ), but it was the dauntless courage of Abu Bakr (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ), which kept control over the state of affairs, organized the campaigns and dispatched the detachments to far off lands. He never allowed fear, anxiety or timidity to enter the hearts of the true believers. His strategies of war had no parallel and Muslim commanders were leading their detachments and Muslim troops were fighting only according to the plans chalked out by the Caliph of the Prophet (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم).

At first consideration it appears that the eleven detachments sent to various places were instrumental in wiping out apostasy from the face of Arabia, but in fact, it was simply the clever devices and the expert opinion of Abu Bakr (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) alone that swept away all the rubbish lying in the path of Islam. And this gigantic task was accomplished within a very short span of a few months. In the discouraging and frustrating situation that he was facing, none else was there to show such a magnificent farsightedness as he demonstrated. He neither agreed to hold back the expedition of Usamah bin Zaid (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) planned by the Prophet (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم) himself during his last days nor did he pay heed to Umar's outbursts nor did he delay the collection of Zakat from the apostates. Who could then be the true successor of the Prophet (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم) in his temporal affairs?

The Battle of Yamamah and the Defeat of Apostasy in Bahrain

Furious Fight:

The forty thousand strong army of Musailamah the liar attacked the Muslim troops not exceeding thirteen thousand in number. A very furious and dreadful fight broke out. The Muslim fighters sustained the fierce attack of the enemy with exemplary patience and firmness. Soon after they collected themselves at the center and fell on the enemy like hungry tigers and routed them thoroughly. The apostates fled the field but collected at the gate of the garden and showed some courage and firmness. At this stage Thabit bin Qais (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ), the standard bearer of the Muslim army was honored with martyrdom. Zaid bin Khattab (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) lifted the standard and the Muslims showed such valor and virility that the enemy had to retreat behind the walls of the garden but the Muslims broke into it.

Now the people asked Musailamah, "When will the promise of victory be fulfilled that your god has given to you?" He replied, "This is not the time to talk all this; everything is now required to fight for the safety of his wife and children." When his garden too turned into the battleground, Musailamah got on his horse and began to call his people to give battle. However, when he witnessed that the situation was under the full control of the Muslims, he got down and moved secretly towards the exit. Wahshi (the one who assassinated Hamzah (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) happened to be at the gate of the garden aiming at Musailamah, he threw his lance so forcefully that it cut through his double coat of mail and cut across his belly. Panic and terror overtook the enemy and in a short while there was none left to be seen on the battlefield other than the Muslims. This battle took a heavy toll on the enemy force leaving seventeen thousand dead while one thousand from the Muslim side were honored with martyrdom. Among them were a large number of Huffaz (those who had committed the entire Qur'an to memory).

The rest of Banu Hanifah fled the battlefield fleeing for their lives leaving their women and children behind. Since a great number of Muslims had sustained injuries, Khalid bin Walid (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) decided to conquer the city of Yamamah the next day. Mujja'ah bin Murarah, the captive took advantage of this decision. He misled Khalid (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) by saying that the greater number of men of his tribe were still alive and they were well-equipped and formidable enough to win by the power of the sword. He then asked Khalid (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) that if he was freed, he could go to persuade them not to give battle. Thus both the city and its citizens would come under their control without blood and toil. Khalid (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) accepted his proposal and freed him.

Mujja'ah went into the city and asked the women to get on the ramparts with their weapons. He then came back and said to Khalid (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ), "My people are not ready to make peace merely in return for their safety." When Khalid (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) looked towards the city, he found that the ramparts showed nothing but swords and spears, which verified the statement of Mujja'ah. Keeping an eye on his injured soldiers and the expectation of a long drawn out battle, Khalid (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) thought it reasonable to make peace with the enemy. Thus he offered to leave for them half of their wealth and possessions, half of the planted gardens and half of the captives of Banu Hanifah. Mujja'ah went to the city once again and came back with the report: "They are not ready to accept this offer, you can win peace by taking from them one-fourth of their possessions." Khalid (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) agreed to the proposal and the peace treaty was written down.

Following this, Khalid (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) went inside the city. He, to his utmost amazement, found there none but women and children. "Why did you play a trick on me?" Khalid (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) asked Mujja'ah. "My people were virtually on the brink of death and destruction, so it was my duty to pull them out of this situation, please excuse me," Mujja'ah replied. Khalid (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) kept silent not thinking in the least about breaking the agreement. A short while after Musailamah bin Waqsh, an emissary of Abu Bakr (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) gave Khalid (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) a letter from the Caliph directing him to kill their men and make their women and children captives in case the battle was won. But the peace treaty was signed before the arrival of the emissary, so the order from Al-Madinah could not be implemented. This event is a memorable example of how particular the Muslims were about keeping their promises and upholding their treaties.

Khalid bin Walid (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) sent a deputation of Banu Hanifah to Abu Bakr (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) with a letter. He had mentioned in it the details about the recent victory and Banu Hanifah's re-entry to Islam. Abu Bakr (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) held them in high esteem and bade farewell to them in the same spirit. The battle of Yamamah took place in Dhul-Hijjah 11 AH.

Hatm bin Dubai'ah

It has already been mentioned that Abu Bakr Siddiq (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) had sent Ala' bin Al-Hadrami (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) to Bahrain at the head of a detachment. Banu Abdul-Qais and Banu Bakr bin Wa'il along with their branches inhabited Bahrain. It has also been stated that Jarud bin Al-Mualla (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) had once represented Abdul-Qais tribe to the Prophet (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم). The people of Abdul-Qais tribe renounced Islam when they heard of the death of the Prophet (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم) with the idea that had he been a Prophet, he would not have died. Jarud bin Al-Mualla (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) assembled his people and put the question to them, "Had there been other Prophets before Muhammad (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم)?" "Yes, there had been many," they admitted with one voice. "Had they not passed away after passing their lives like common people?" he put another question. "They all passed away after passing their days of life," they admitted. "The Prophet (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم) also completed his span of life and then passed away exactly in the same manner," he said and called in a loud voice: "I testify that there is no God but Allah and Muhammad in His slave and Messenger." The hearts of the people of Abdul-Qais tribe were moved so deeply that they all expressed deep sorrow for their wrongdoing and returned to the fold of Islam.

Though Abdul-Qais tribe was saved through the timely efforts of Jarud bin Al-Mualla (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ), but Banu Bakr bin Wa'il tribe took to apostasy and made Hatm their chief. He marched ahead with a large number of men from Banu Bakr and camped between Qatif and Hijr. He then sent a small party to Abdul-Qais tribe to make them apostates and to come back. However, Abdul-Qais flatly refused to turn apostate. Hatm then sent Ma'rur bin Suwaid with a group to either make them apostate or fight with them. In the meantime Ala' bin Al-Hadrami (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) arrived in Bahrain with his detachment. He sent word to Jarud bin Al-Mualla (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) to launch an attack on Hatm in the company of Banu Abdul-Qais.

With the spread of this news, Muslims from the surrounding areas collected around Ala' bin Al-Hadrami (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) while the apostates gathered round Hatm. Ala' bin Al-Hadrami (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) moved ahead with his army and camped near the military camp of Hatm. Hatm had dug trenches around his camp. The fight between the two started but none of them was crowned with victory even after a long period of one month. However, Ala' bin Al-Hadrami (رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) lost his patience and launched such a furious attack across the enemy trenches that the enemy force was filled with wild terror, and with the killing of Hatm at the hands of Qais bin Asim, the entire enemy front was completely routed. Gradually all the apostates turned back to Islam.