Muhammad bin Qasim and the Conquest of Sindh

Mohammad bin Qasim

During the time when the Muslims marched victoriously out of Arabia, the Sindh was ruled over by a Buddhist king. When the Iranian empire was shattered to pieces at the hands of the Muslims, many Iranian chiefs fled to the Sindh, Turkistan and China and were engaged in preparing for war against the Muslims. Some others embraced Islam and began to lead happy lives in their countries. It was by sheer chance that when the Sectional and family rivalries between Banu Hashim and Banu Umayyah increased, the Iranians were also reminded of their own age-old national rivalry and they began to take part in the conspiracies hatched by Abdullah bin Saba and other hypocrites. These conspiracies and the civil wars among the Muslims breathed new life into the plans of those Iranians who were in exile in Sindh, Kabul, China, and Tibet and among those who were engaged in preparing to fight the Islamic forces. This is one of the reasons that the Muslims had to face hardships repeatedly in Kufa, Basra, Iran and Khorasan.

Because Sindh was nearer to Basra and Kufa and it touched the Iranian border, the refuge of choice for many of the subversive Iranians was the Sindh. The king of Sindh seeing the flood of Islamic victories was very unhappy and employed all possible strategies to help the Iranians re-establish their ancient kingdom. The last king of Iran collected several armies and fought with the Muslims a number of times after the battle of Nahavand (the decisive battle that marked the conquest of Iran). In all those battles, the army of Sindh always allied themselves with the king of Iran. When the Iranian emperor was killed, the king of Sindh annexed the bordering provinces of Iranian and the vanquished Iranians surrendered Kerman and Baluchistan to him willingly so that they might not be occupied by the Muslims and they might continue to enjoy the privilege of the support of the king of Sindh.

All these considerations made it imperative for the Muslims to launch an attack on the king of Sindh and to force him to cut off aid to the Iranian subversives. However, before the Muslims could occupy Iran and Khorasan completely during the caliphate of Uthman bin Affan (رضي الله عنه), the internal feuds in the heartlands of the Islamic territories broke out and no attention was paid to the Sindh, or to any other critical military site. Amir Muawiya (رضي الله عنه) after freeing himself from internal disruptions, turned his attention to the foreign lands and it was during his regime that the first efforts were made to regain the Iranian territory annexed by the king of Sindh. In that connection, a few skirmishes took place with his army but then the internecine wars re-started during Yazid’s regime and consequently the Muslims did not fulfill their military priorities abroad.

During Abdul Malik’s regime, the Muslims again did not have an opportunity to pay attention to foreign campaigns. Hajjaj who was the governor of the eastern countries considered it more strategic to contain Ratbeel the Governor of Afghanistan and Badakhshan than to attack the Sindh simply because Ratbeel was the greater danger to the Islamic province of Khorasan. Therefore, his attention remained centered on Ratbeel. Hajjaj’s Governor Qutaiba achieved continued success in disciplining the rebels in the territories extending all the way to China. Sindh was the only country where the Muslims still had a security situation that was pending. However, before the Muslims could take an initiative on this important work, the king of Sindh himself challenged them virtually inviting an invasion of his country.

The following are the details of the king of Sindh’s fateful error. It is said that a few Muslims traders died in Sri Lanka in the course of their business expedition. The Sri Lankan king decided to use the presence of the orphans and the widows of these traders on the island to attract the kindness and the attention of Hajjaj bin Yusuf and Caliph Waleed bin Abdul Malik to himself. The Sri Lankan king had heard the legendary news of Muslim victories. He was overawed by their express and had been in search of an opportunity and a way to express and pay his respect to the new and dominant nation in the region. He therefore sent the orphans and the widows on his own ship with an escort of some of his most trusted men to Hajjaj. Many invaluable gifts to Hajjaj and the Caliph Waleed also were sent accompanying them with the hope that the orphans and the widows would appreciate his good and kind gesture and applaud him before Hajjaj. The boats left Lanka and sailed towards the Arabian Gulf along the coast. They intended to land in the Gulf and travel to Kufa in order to return the families of the traders and present the gifts to Hajjaj. A storm over took them on the way and they were forced to take shelter in the port of Debal. There the soldiers of Dahir, the king of Sindh, looted the boats and made the passengers their captives. When Hajjaj was informed, he wrote to the king that those boats were on the way to him and so he should punish the looters suitably and send him the passengers along with all the goods that were confiscated. The King gave a very proud and impertinent reply. Hajjaj immediately sent Abdullah Aslami along with six thousand soldiers to Sindh. Abdullah was killed while fighting the king of Sindh and the expedition met with failure. Next, Hajjaj sent another commander named Budail. He also went there along with six thousand soldiers and he was martyred while fighting against the king.

Hajjaj was distressed to hear this news. He then sent Mohammad bin Qasim his nephew and son-in-law, a youth only 17 years old, along with six thousand Syrian troops. This time he chose Syrian troops to accompany Mohammad bin Qasim because Hajjaj suspected that the Iraqi and the Iranian soldiers were in league with the Sindhis. Mohammad bin Qasim first captured the province of Makran (coastal area that is part of modern Iran and Pakistan), which was under the occupation of the Sindhis. Then he came to Debal and conquered it and next moved towards Niroon and Brahminabad. Not only Iranian subversives but also many Arabs who had rebelled against the caliph had fled and taken refuge with King Dahir in Sindh. This was another reason why the invasion of the Sindh was inevitable. King Dahir fought against the Muslim forces but was killed. Then Mohammad bin Qasim started conquering the cities of Sindh one after another until all of Sindh and Multan came under his occupation.

During the conquest of Sindh, Hajjaj kept his attention concentrated on Mohammad bin Qasim. He sent for news and gave instructions daily. Mohammad bin Qasim proved himself to be an extremely benevolent and merciful victor who was concerned about the general welfare of the people. The equality, humility and generosity that this young victor displayed are rarely found anywhere in the annals of world history. He had completed the conquest of Multan when he received the news of Hajjaj’s death but he continued his series of conquests and by 96 A.H., he had brought all of Western India from Surat to Kashmir under his control.

Qutaiba bin Muslim Bahli and the Muslim Conquests in Turkistan

Qutaiba bin Muslim Bahli

Hajjaj deputed Qutaiba bin Muslim Bahli as the governor of Khorasan in 86 A.H. Qutaiba arrived in Merv and appointed Ayas bin Abdullah bin Amr the officer of defense and chief of police. He entrusted the management of finance to Uthman bin Sad. Taking a large army, he set out towards Talaqan. There the Turkish King of Safad paid a visit to him and agreed to conform and pay the required taxes and at the end of the meeting the king induced him to launch an attack on Akhroon and Shoman which were part of the land of Tagharistan.

When Qutaiba reached Akhroon and Shoman, their kings agreed to obey and pay him the taxes and made peace with him. He sent his brothers Saleh to Farghana and he returned to Merv. Saleh conquered Kashana Darasht and Akhshakeet in the land of Farghana. In 87 A.H., Qutaiba invaded Bukhara. The Turks in the area put up a defense of the territory but in vain. The Islamic forces collected a large amount of spoils of war. In 88 A.H., the inhabitants of Safad and Farghana revolted and making the Chinese king's sister's son their leader had gathered a huge army of two hundred thousand and came to face Qutaiba. He fought and defeated them and returned to Merv. In 89 A.H., the chiefs of Bukhara Kush, Nasf and Safad jointly rebelled. They were also defeated unconditionally and compelled to surrender.

In 90 A.H. Durdan, the king of Bukhara and the king of Safad and the Turkish chiefs of the surrounding territories were prepared to rebel but Nizak Turkhan, the prince of Badghais remained loyal to the Muslims. Qutaiba, taking Turkhan with him, moved towards Bukhara, the Turks fought bravely. They at first vanquished the local vanguard but when the Islamic forces steadied and attacked, they captured the Turkish positions. The Turk’s leader and his son were wounded and escaped and the Muslims scored a major victory. Tarkhoon, the king of Safad agreed to pay the Jizya annually and Qutaiba returned to Merv. (Jizya: A tax paid by non-Muslims living under an Islamic Government. Since the non-Muslims are exempt from military service and taxes imposed on Muslims, they must pay this tax to compensate. It guarantees them security and protection. If the State cannot protect those who paid jizya, then the amount they paid is returned to them.) As soon as he returned to Merv, Nizak arrived in Tukharistan (now part of northern Afghanistan) and revolted. Then Asbahand, the king of Balkh, Bazan the king of Mardarood, the Prince of Talqan, Fayarab, the Prince of Jurjan and the king of Kabul jointly hatched a conspiracy and expelled Qutaiba’s Governor. Qutaiba sent his brother Abdur Rahman bin Muslim with an army of twelve thousand with the instructions to encamp at Yardqan. With the end of winter, Qutaiba sent some armies to Nishapur (modern: Neyshabur, 50 kilometers west of Meshed) and led a multi-pronged attack against the rebels. As a result, they were punished in proportion to their crime and all of them agreed to remain loyal and pay the Jizya. In this campaign, the fort of Samangan was captured and annexed to the Islamic territory. Nizak was caught and killed.

The king of Jurjan was pardoned and allowed to remain king in his own country. In brief, the Turkish chiefs rebelled repeatedly and they were defeated each time by Qutaiba until the idea of rebellion left their minds. In 92 A.H. Ratbeel, who has been mentioned in the previous pages, intended to revolt but when Qutaiba arrived in his territory with his army Ratbeel begged for forgiveness and paid the Jizya. In 93 A.H., Qutaiba won the land of Khwarizm, took a promise from its king to pay the legitimate taxes and then returned the country to him. When Qutaiba was capturing Khwarizm, the natives of Safad saw that the former was at a great distance from them expelled Qutaiba’s governor and rebelled against him. Qutaiba sent the booty towards Khwarizm to Madinah, and he himself with an army rushed towards Safad with terrific speed.

Having heard Qutaiba’s arrival the inhabitants of Safad requested the Chinese emperor to help them and he sent his veteran generals and princes for their defense. The Turks prepared to defend the fort of Samarkand. Qutaiba came and began to the fight. Several bloody battles were fought. The son of the Chinese emperor was killed. The fort was brought under Muslim control by virtue of their strength and thousands of Turks were put to death. Heavy taxes were imposed on them and the leaders of the revolt who were arrested were sent to Hajjaj. Among the captives was a woman who was a descendent of Yazdegerd (who was the child ruler of Persia at the time of its fall to the Muslims). He sent the woman to Waleed bin Abdul Malik who married her. She gave birth to his son Yazid. After coming back to Merv, Qutaiba appointed Mughira bin Abdullah the Governor of Nishapur. In 94 A.H., the inhabitants of Shash seem to be ready to revolt, Qutaiba asked the rules of Bukhara Kush, Nasf and Khwarizm for help. All responded and an army of ten thousand soldiers was collected. Qutaiba encamped at Khajand and sent the army to Shash and Qutaiba returned to Merv while he was returning he was informed up to Hajjaj's death. At that time, the Muslims occupied all the territories up to Kashgar and had established Islamic rule firmly over all of  Turkistan. He sent a delegation to the Chinese emperor under the leadership of Habira bin Mashmarj Kilabi with the message. "Accept Islamic rule or the horses of the Islamic warriors will run over China".

Succession of Waleed and Sulaiman and the Reign of Waleed bin Abdul Malik

Succession of Waleed and Sulaiman

Abdul Malik remained engrossed in the thought of how to dismiss his brother Abdul Aziz from being the heir apparent and install his own sons in his place. The task was not simple because there was always the risk of inviting opposition from the people at large. When he received the news of Abdul Aziz's death, Abdul Malik found an easy opportunity to see his wish fulfilled. In Ramadan 86 A.H. therefore, he issued commands to all his Governors and Administrators of the Provinces to take the oath for Waleed and Sulaiman on the night of Eid ul Fitr (the holiday following the fasting of Ramadan), that being the first day of Shawwal. The oath was taken on the fixed day in all the territories for the succession of both Waleed and Sulaiman.

The administrator of Madinah was Hisham bin Ismail Makhzumi. When he asked the inhabitants of Madinah to take the oath, all obeyed but Sayeed bin Musayyib refused. Hisham had him caught and lashed, and after he took him in publicity, threw him into prison. When Abdul Malik found out about it, he wrote Hisham a letter saying: "You have committed a mistake in dealing harshly with Sayeed bin Musayyib, because the latter harbors neither animosity nor opposition nor hypocrisy. Such a person should not have been hurt."

The Death of Abdul Malik bin Marwan

After taking the oath for Waleed and Sulaiman, Abdul Malik did not live more than a month. He died of a disease on Thursday the 15th of Shawwal 85 A.H. corresponding to 19 October 705 A.C. Abdul Malik lived for 13 years 3 months and 23 days following Abdullah bin Zubair's martyrdom and that was the period of his caliphate. At the time of his death, he called his sons and exhorted them saying: "I want you to keep fearing Allâh for it is the fear of Allâh that is the best adornment and the best refuge. Your elders ought to have affection for the youth and the youth should respect the elders. Always honor the opinion and counsel of the Muslims and avoid opposition because these are the jaws with which you chew and these are the teeth with which you bite. Accommodate the wise for they deserve it."

Then he mentioned things, which have been recorded before in the introductory chapter on Abdul Malik. After that, he breathed his last. Then the people took the oath at Waleed bin Abdul Malik's hands. Abdul Malik had 15 or 16 sons and several daughters. Among his wives were the daughters of Yazid bin Muawiya, the daughter of Ali (رضي الله عنه) and the daughter of Abdullah bin Jafar (رضي الله عنه). Waleed and Sulaiman were born of Walada bint Abbas.

Summary

Abdul Malik bin Marwan was one of the most famous and fortunate caliphs of the Banu Umayyah. He succeeded in the amalgaMotion of the entire Islamic world with a strong center. He removed the dissention that was created following Uthman's martyrdom and re-established the Islamic government. He adopted stern and violent measures to do this work and in the way of an excuse, he used to say: "If Abu Bakr Siddiq (رضي الله عنه) and Umar bin Khatab (رضي الله عنه) had to face such ignorant and headstrong people, they would have done what I have done." Abdul Malik made the government of Banu Umayyah firmly rooted, which had become quite uncertain and weak.

Abdul Malik combined in his nature strictness, wisdom and truthfulness. We have to appreciate his courage and determination. The major blunder he committed was that he gave Hajjaj more power and authority than he deserved and Hajjaj employed his tyrannical measures to the full. But such an error is possible to be committed by a ruler who wants his government to be firmly established and stabilized.

It was Obaidullah bin Zeyad, Hajjaj bin Yusuf Thaqfi and Muhallab bin Abi Sofra who were responsible for the series of successes of Abdul Malik. During his regime, the Muslims conquered many countries and their bickering and internal conflicts vanished one by one. On the basis of his achievements during his 13 year long caliphate, he is regarded as one of the most popular and successful caliphs. He was also a grand and powerful caliph. He ranks high in respect of knowledge and virtue. From the viewpoint of valor and military skill, he is counted as one of the brave and well-known generals. At the juncture of his death, we have come out of a tempestuous age and entered one that may be characterized as peaceful and serene.

Waleed bin Abdul Malik

Abul Abbas Waleed bin Abdul Malik bin Marwan was born in 50 A.H. and at the age of 36, following his father’s death, he sat on the throne as caliph. Since he was brought up in a pampered way, he was deficient in studies and lacked knowledge and virtue. After the funeral of his father he went to Central Mosque and delivered a sermon saying:

"O people! No one can push the man into the rear that Allâh pushes to the forefront and no one can push the man to the forefront that Allâh pushes into the rear. Death was in the ancient knowledge of Allâh which He has made inevitable for all the prophets and the righteous, Allâh has made the responsible of this "Ummah" (community) a man who makes up his mind to discipline the criminals treat the men of virtue and righteousness mildly and maintain the limits of the Shariah (system of Islamic law). He has a mind to perform Hajj, declare Jihad (literally: struggle; In Islam it means fighting or struggling in the way of Allah) on the borders and to keep attacking the enemies of the religion. He wants neither to be lazy nor to exceed the limits in this matter. O people obey the caliph and maintain unity among the Muslims. The man who disobeys will see his head broken and he who keeps silent will die of his own disease".

The people then took 'bai'yat', (the oath of allegiance) for the caliphate at his hands. After he became the caliph, he maintained the status quo by retaining Hajjaj in a place of authority. Hajjaj appointed Qutaiba bin Muslim Bahli, the Administrator of Rayy, as the Governor of Khorasan in place of Mofaddal bin Muhallab. Qutaiba bin Muslim conquered the territories up to China and Turkistan. In the west Musa bin Nusayr, the Governor of Africa, extended the Islamic conquest through Morocco into Spain. Waleed’s brother Maslama bin Abdul Malik won many cities and forts from the Romans.

Mohammed bin Qasim bin Thaqfi who was Hajjaj’s nephew and son-in-law conquered the Sindh and India. Waleed appointed his cousin Umar bin Abdul Aziz the Governor of Madinah Munawwara. He had the Mosque of the Prophet reconstructed under Umar bin Abdul Aziz’s supervision. He incorporated the Prophet’s wives' rooms into the mosque and expanded it. The Roman Emperor also sent precious stones and experienced masons as gifts to Waleed. Waleed did a significant amount of welfare work. He built new roads, opened new schools in villages and towns, constructed inns, dug wells, started hospitals and made arrangements for peace and security of the travelers. Madinah lacked a canal so he had one dug and thus removed the suffering of Madinah. He started homes for the destitute. He cared very much for redressing the public grievances and providing them relief of all kinds. During his regime the chain of conquests continued. No internal feud or rebellion worth mentioning broke out. The series of victories reminded the people of the days of Umar bin Khatab (رضي الله عنه). Waleed fixed the allowance for the poor Fuqaha (plural of faqih: man learned in knowledge of the science of applying the system of Islamic law known as fiqh, and by virtue of his knowledge can give a legal judgment, fatwa) and Ulama (plural of Alim, a scholar, particularly in the sciences of Islam) so high that they became well off and happy. He introduced useful rules and regulations for the welfare of the people. Waleed dismissed Hisham bin Ismail Makhzumi and appointed Umar bin Abdul Aziz the Governor of Madinah. Immediately after taking office, Umar bin Abdul Aziz selected ten scholars from among the fuqaha of Madinah. He began to execute the duties of governor in accordance with the counsel and advice of the consultative body he formed known as the Majlis as-Shoora consisting of the ten selected scholars. By allowing the members of the Majlis as-Shoora to share in the government he set such an excellent example for the other government officials that the people of Madinah wrote letters of thanks and blessing to Waleed for appointing Umar bin Abdul Aziz as Governor.

It was after Waleed bin Abdul Malik's succession to the throne that Hajjaj accused Yazid bin Muhallab and his brothers of embezzling. In 87 A.H., Maslama bin Abdul Malik attacked the Roman lands via Masisa and captured the forts of Laulaq, Akhram, Bules and Qamiqam. In 88 A.H., Jarsumah and Tawanah were conquered. In 89 A.H., Maslama bin Abdul Malik and Abbas bin Waleed invaded Roman territory. A massive Roman army faced them but the Muslims defeated it on all fronts and forced them to retreat. The Muslims conquered the forts of Soriya, Ardoliya, Omuriya, Harqula, and Qamruliya. That same year Maslama bin Abdul Malik invaded the Turks near Azerbaijan and conquered many forts and cities. In the same year the islands of Mayorca and Minorca in the Mediterranean Sea off the coast of Spain were also taken into possession. In 90 A.H., Abbas bin Waleed captured five strong forts in the territories of Soriya.

In 91 A.H., Waleed dismissed his uncle Mohammed bin Marwan from the governorship of Jazirah (Island: The region lies between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and is bounded on the south by a line running between Takrit and Anbar. It is the northern reaches of Mesopotamia, now making up part of northern Iraq and extending into eastern Turkey and extreme northeastern Syria) and Armenia and deputed his own brother Maslama bin Abdul Malik instead. The Muslims declared a jihad on the Turks through Azerbaijan and continued to conquer territory up to Babol (northern Caspian Sea). That year the forts of Nasf, Kush and Shoman were conquered by the Muslims.

In 92 A.H., Maslama bin Abdul Malik conquered three forts and banished the inhabitants of Sarsina to Roman territory. That same year Debal was conquered in Sindh. The same year also saw the conquest of Karkh, Barham, Baja, Baiza, Khawarzim and Sabad.

In 93 A.H., Maslama bin Abdul Malik and Waleed’s sons, Abbas and Marwan, invaded the Roman territory and captured the forts of Sabitala, Hanjara, Masha, Hisnul Hadeed, Ghazala, and Maltia.

In 94 A.H., Abbas bin Waleed and Abdul Aziz bin Waleed conquered Antakia and Ghazala respectively, that same year Waleed bin Hisham Moiti Murooj al-Hamam and Yazid bin Abi Kabsha continued conquering Soriya respectively. That very year Kabul, Farghana Shash, and Sindh were conquered.

In 95 A.H., when the inhabitants of Heraqla found the Islamic forces busy on other fronts they rebelled, Abbas bin Waleed conquered it again. That same year, Mauqan Madinatul Bab were conquered.

In 96 A.H., Tus (ancient city that is an offshoot of Meshed in Eastern Iran) and the adjoining territories were conquered. If all the battles and wars that were fought in Waleed bin Abdul Malik’s times are recorded in detail several volumes of this concise book would not suffice to cover Waleed’s regime alone. Therefore, keeping brevity in view, the feats of a few famous and victorious generals of Waleed’s times are recorded as a reference so that the readers of this book may feel ease in taking stock of the condition of Waleed bin Abdul Malik’s regime and that of the Islamic world. Maslama bin Abdul Malik is one of the victorious generals of Waleed’s times whose conquests have found mention above. Now read the conditions and circumstances of some of the other generals.

Musa bin Hazim’s Rule in Termiz and the Introduction of Islamic Coins

Musa bin Hazim

It has already been mentioned that Musa bin Abdullah bin Hazim had founded an independent state at Termiz and that Huraith and Thabit, Qatna Khuazai's sons, fled from Muhallab and went to Musa bin Abdullah at Termiz. When Muhallab became the Governor of Khorasan, he did not disturb Musa and exhorted his sons, "Always leave Musa alone and forgive him for if there is no Musa, somebody else from among Banu Qais will be the Governor of Khorasan" When Abdur Rahmari bin Mohammad was defeated by Yazid bin Muhallab at Herat, Abdur Rahman bin Mohammad and Abdur Rahman bin Abbas' men who fled from the conflict with Yazid, went directly to Musa bin Abdullah at Termiz. When Ratbeel chopped off Abdur Rahman bin Mohammad's head and sent it to Hajjaj, Abdur Rahman's men fled from Ratbeel and went to Musa bin Abdullah and took refuge at Termiz. In this way, Musa bin Abdullah came to have eight thousand Arabs under his command. Both brothers, Huraith and Thabit, served as commanders and Musa bin Abdullah was an independent king. Huraith and Thabit said to Musa, "The people of Bukhara and all the Turkish chiefs are displeased with Yazid bin Muhallab. If we let them be with us, we can expel Yazid bin Muhallab and occupy Khorasan ourselves." Musa said, "If we expel Yazid from Khorasan, some other governor of Abdul Malik' will occupy it and we will not be able to save Khorasan. It is better to expel Abdul Malik's governors from Turkistan. We then would be able to maintain our hold on that territory because Abdul Malik's troops will not have an approach, and the Turks and the Mongols who are present near the borders will help us." Following this decision, all the Governors of Abdul Malik were expelled from the area and Musa bin Abdullah's government became strong and stable.

After a short time the Turks, the Mongols and the Tibetans invaded Musa's country jointly. The leader of the Turks along with ten thousand soldiers were stationed on a mound, Huraith bin Qatna attacked them. The attack was so fierce that the Turks had to take shelter behind the mound. It was during that confusion and uproar that an arrow hit Huraith on the forehead. The wound proved fatal and he died after two days. Because evening had set in, the fight was postponed. The next day Musa attacked and vanquished the Turks and returned with a good deal of spoils of war to their fort at Termiz. After the death of Huraith, his brother Thabit bin Qatna, taking a wrong idea about Musa's intentions parted with him. He left Termiz and halted at Hoshra and began to rally the Arabs and non-Arabs round him. When Musa left with an army to fight with him, the people of Bukhara, Kush and Nasf stood up in support of Thabit. Musa had to return to Termiz helpless. After a few days, all the Turks assembled and taking Thabit bin Qatna with them laid siege to Termiz with a staggering eight thousand soldiers. Musa defended with great courage. Thabit was killed and the Turks became disorganized and left raising the siege,.

Only a short time had passed following this confusion when Yazid bin Muhallab after having been dismissed from the governorship of Khorasan, left for Kufa and in his place his brother Mofaddal bin Muhallab was chosen as the governor of Khorasan. Immediately after taking control he gave an army to Uthman bin Masood and sent him from Merv to invade Musa bin Abdullah bin Hazim and wrote to his own brother Mud'rik bin Muhallab who lived in Balkh to set out with his army to launch an attack on Termiz. Moreover, he wrote to Ratbeel and Tarkhoon, the Turkish kings, to arrive there with their troops to help Uthman bin Masood. Those Turkish chiefs who had already grown jealous of Musa and had suffered defeat at his hands repeatedly, immediately left with their armies for Termiz. His enemies converged on his territory from four different directions compelling him to remain besieged in the fort. The siege laid by those massive armies continued for two months and there was no end in sight. At last, Musa bin Abdullah said to his men, "We can not exercise self restraint any more. It is more fitting that we attack the enemies all of a sudden." All agreed to the proposal. Musa deputed his nephew Nadar bin Sulaiman in the city and the fort and exhorted him, "If I am killed, don't surrender the city and the fort to Uthman bin Masood rather surrender them to Mudrik bin Muhallab."

Musa deputed one-third of his men to face Uthman with the instructions not to begin the attack first and taking two-thirds of the men attacked the flank led by Tarkhoon and Ratbeel. Unable to face Musa they retreated. Musa chased them for a great distance. When he returned, the people of Saghad and other Turks blocked his way to the fort. Renewed fighting began. He was surrounded on all sides. Uthman bin Masood also turned his attention to him. First Musa's horse was killed and then he also followed it fighting bravely.

After having ruled over Termiz independently for fifteen years, Musa who came from the tribe of Qais left this world. Mofaddal wrote the letter of the good tidings to Hajjaj, but the latter was not happy. Nadar bin Sulaiman surrendered Termiz to Mudrik and Mudrik gave it to Uthman.

The Beginning of the Islamic Coins

Among the many firsts attributed to Abdul Malik bin Marwan, during his regime that the Muslims for the first time cast and introduced their own coins. Until then, Roman coins were in currency in Syria, Arabia and Egypt. In Iraq, the Iranian coins were in use. In Arabia, there was neither a strong government nor were there Arabic coins. Roman coins had been in circulation in all those countries since ancient times. When, the Islamic Sultanate was established and it extended from Balkh and Jaihoon to the Atlantic Ocean, still no one thought of introducing Islamic coins.

By chance Abdul Malik bin Marwan happened to write a few letters to the Emperor of Rome. In accordance with the Islamic way, he wrote "There is no true god but Allah and Muhammad is his Messenger" and prayers for the Prophet (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم) on the top of these letters. The Emperor wrote back to him saying, "Don't mention your Allâh and the Prophet (صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم) on the top of your letters. We don't like it. If you don't give it up, we will cast in our mint coins, which will be bearing your Prophet's name in an insulting manner and then send them into circulation and that will hurt you more."

Abdul Malik was very concerned and disconcerted while going through that letter. He sought counsel from Khalid bin Yazid bin Muawiya. He said to him, "Stop the circulation of the Roman coins in your country, mint your own coins and put them into circulation." Abdul Malik liked the idea. He set up a mint and had 14-carat dirhams minted which weighed 5 'mashas' - each. Then Hajjaj had قل هو الله أحد (Say He is Allah, One) minted on one side of the dirham and dinar. Abdul Malik proclaimed that from that time forth only Arabic coins would be accepted in payment of taxes. By this method, the Arabic dinar and dirham became circulated in all the countries.

Some points regarding important events remain to be mentioned. For example, Abdul Malik bin Marwan went on the Hajj pilgrimage for the first time in 75 A.H. after becoming caliph. In 77 A.H., the fort of Harqla was conquered. That same year Abdul Malik's brother Abdul Aziz bin Marwan the Governor of Egypt, pulled down the Jama Masjid (the Grand or Main Mosque) and reconstructed it and expanded it from all sides. In 81 A.H., he won Qaliqala from the Romans. In 82 A.H., the Fort of Senan was brought under possession. Mofaddal bin Muhallab, the Governor of Khorasan, after becoming free from the trouble in Khorasan by killing of Musa bin Abdullah, occupied Badghais. In 84 A.H. Abdullah bin Abdul Malik conquered Masisa from the Romans. In 85 A.H. Abdul Aziz bin Abu Hatim bin Noman Bahli populated the city of Ardabil (town in northwestern Iran, 38 miles from the Caspian Sea). In Jamad al-Awwal 85 A.H., Abdul Malik's brother Abdul Aziz bin Marwan died in Egypt and Abdul Malik appointed his own son Abdullah, as the Governor of Egypt in his place.

The Revolt of Abdur Rahman bin Ash'ath, the Establishment of Wasit, and the Dismissal of Yazid bin Muhallab

Abdur Rahman bin Abbas faced Hajjaj ferociously. His preoccupation with these battles and confrontations gave a respite to Abdur Rahman bin Mohammad and enabled him to occupy Kufa. At last, Abdur Rahman bin Abbas, along with a good number of the Basraites, advanced towards Kufa and joined Abdur Rahman bin Mohammad. Hajjaj entered Basra and appointed Hakeem bin Ayyub Thaqfi to the post of Governor of Basra, and proceeded towards Kufa and encamped at Dairqarah. From the other side Abdur Rahman bin Mohammad came out and made fortifications at Dairjam. Moats, fortifications and walls were made by both sides and the battle began. It continued for a long time. Everyday men from both sides came onto the battlefield and pushed back the other side but they did not wage a decisive battle. At last, Abdul Malik sent his son Abdullah and his brother, Muhammad bin Marwan along with a large army to Kufa and conveyed through them a message to the Iraqis:

"We dismiss Hajjaj. We will fix the salaries of the Iraqis at par with those of the Syrians and Abdur Rahman bin Mohammad will be given the Governorship of the province he likes."

The message hurt Hajjaj very much. He stopped Abdullah and Mohammad from conveying the message and wrote a letter to Abdul Malik saying, "Your policy will never make the Iraqis your subjects and they will grow more headstrong." But Abdul Malik disapproved of Hajjaj's views and Abdullah and Mohammad communicated his message to the Iraqis.

To the Iraqis it spelt a great victory and Abdur Rahman bin Mohammad was ready to recognize it. But the army did not agree to it and raised its voice against it and renewed its oath for annulling Abdul Malik's oath. Grasping the situation, both Abdullah and Mohammad left the army with Hajjaj and returned to Abdul Malik. Again, the battle between the parties raged with renewed vigor, fresh preparations and strategies it continued in this manner for a year. Daily they came out fought and returned to their bases in the evening. In those battles, Abdur Rahman had an edge over his rival Hajjaj who suffered heavy losses. But Hajjaj continued to receive regular reinforcements from Syria. At last, on Jumad al-Thani 83 A.H. there was a decisive battle. It went in favor of Hajjaj due to a certain set of accidental occurrences and he at once entered Kufa and occupied it. Abdur Rahman bin Mohammad returned to Basra and expelled Hajjaj's governor from there, and captured Basra. Hajjaj started taking the oath from the Kufans and who ever hesitated, was instantly killed.

Abdur Rahman bin Mohammad collected a large army at Basra and intended to attack Hajjaj. Hearing this news, Hajjaj took a large Syrian army and moved towards Basra. The battle began on 1, Shaban 83 A.H. It continued fiercely until 15 Shaban. Hajjaj suffered defeat several times but he remained steady. Abdul Malik bin Muhallab was also present in his army. When Abdul Malik bin Muhallab attacked Abdur Rahman with his men, Abdur Rahman and his men reversed their position and ransacked Hajjaj's camp and forced him to runaway from the battlefield and they returned victorious to their base however they were stunned and terrified by a sudden attack by Abdul Malik bin Muhallab. They had to retreat. Many of them died, falling into the moat and many were killed and many escaped.

Hajjaj who had suffered a defeat returned and occupied Abdur Rahman bin Mohammad's camp. After being defeated, Abdur Rahman went to Ratbeel the king of Turkistan, by passing through Sos, Sabur, Kerman, Ziranj and Bist. Abdur Rahman bin Mohammad's men assembled at Sajistan and made Abdur Rahman bin Abbas bin Rabia bin Abdul Mutallib the Imam of their Salats. They called all their colleagues from all directions and sent word to Abdur Rahman bin Mohammad to return and occupy Khorasan. He replied that Khorasan was ruled over by Yazid bin Muhallab and it would not be easy to snatch it from him. But they insisted and Abdur Rahman yielded to their pressure and he returned from Ratbeel. They numbered twenty thousand. He took them to Herat and captured it. Yazid bin Muhallab came with his army. When they came to face each other, Abdur Rahman bin Mohammad's men began leaving before the beginning of the battle. Under compulsion, he fought supported by only a few men. Many were killed and captured. Abdur Rahman fled to the Sindh. Yazid stopped his army from pursuing him and Abdur Rahman arrived in Sindh.

Yazid took the captives of Herat to Merv and from there, he sent them to Hajjaj. Muhammad bin Sad bin Abi Waqaas was also among them and he was executed by the order of Hajjaj. Abdur Rahman bin Ash'ath left Sindh and went to Ratbeel. There he contracted tuberculosis. Hajjaj wrote to Ratbeel to cut off his head and send it to him assuring him that he would exempt him from paying taxes for ten years in lieu thereof. Ratbeel complied, killed Abdur Rahman bin Muhammad and sent his head to Hajjaj. This took place in 84 A.H.

The Population of the City of Wasit

You have read above that Hajjaj had to ask for help from Abdul Malik repeatedly in order to face Abdur Rahman bin Muhammad. When Abdur Rahman came to Sajistan dethroned, Hajjaj had a big Syrian army under his command. He had no respite from the Kufans and Basraites because they had fought against him along with Abdur Rahman bin Mohammad. Therefore keeping the Syrian army with him for an extended period was very essential. First, Hajjaj issued instructions to the Kufans to keep the Syrians with them in their homes. But after a few days, the Syrians started misbehaving with the Kufan's women folk. When Hajjaj was informed of it, he thought it proper to establish a separate military headquarters for the Syrian army. He therefore constituted a body of veteran soldiers to select a suitable site for it. They saw an ascetic who was purifying a place. When he was asked to explain the reason, he replied that they had read in their scripture that they would build a house of Allah on that site. They came back to Hajjaj and narrated the incident. Hajjaj built a mosque there and established a military headquarter around it. That was the beginning of the city of Wasit. It occurred in 83 A.H.

Yazid bin Muhallab Dismissed

After freeing himself from the problems of Abdur Rahman bin Mohammad, Hajjaj continued to deal harshly with the Iraqis. He began to pick out their leaders and murder them. No household of any significance in Iraq, Kufa and Basra was left where a member was not killed by Hajjaj's order and they had to suffer humiliation from him. Only Muhallab's household was spared due to its loyalty to Hajjaj. Yazid bin Muhallab was the Governor of Khorasan and obedient to Abdul Malik and Hajjaj. Hajjaj called Yazid to Kufa several times but every time he was in the midst of some engagement in Khorasan and made some excuse and failed to visit Kufa. Hajjaj, who was suspicious by nature misunderstood Yazid and made up his mind to take away from him of the Governorship of Khorasan. He began to write letters to Abdul Malik containing complaints against Yazid. Each time Abdul Malik wrote back to Hajjaj that Muhallab and his sons were loyal supporters and they deserved all possible concessions. However, Hajjaj continued his moves against them. At last getting sick of constant complaints, Abdul Malik wrote to him, "Since you insist on your proposal, I permit you to choose anyone you like for the Governorship of Khorasan. In order to prevent the problem of Khorasan getting complicated and saving Khorasan from being captured by another Governor, Hajjaj first of all sent word to Yazid that after handing over Khorasan to his brother Mofaddal bin Muhallab he should come to him. Yazid was packing for the journey when he received Hajjaj's order as well as the letter of Governorship in the name of Mofaddal. Yazid said to his brother "Don't be deceived by this letter of Governorship of Khorasan although he has appointed you to this post after a short time he will dismiss you too." Saying this, he left for Merv in Rabia al-Thani 85 A.H. Yazid proved right. Hajjaj dismissed Mofaddal bin Muhallab after nine months and deputed Qutaiba bin Muslim instead.

Muhallab’s Death and the Revolt of Abdur Rahman bin Ash‘ath Against Hajjaj

 Muhallab's Death and His Will

Muhallab was shocked at his son Mughira's death. He did not live long after he arrived back in Merv. In the later months of 82 A.H., he died of a disease in Merv. His valor, good nature and loyalty were well known. His character was never involved in a breach of trust, disloyalty or rebellion. He thought it essential to obey and comply with the orders of the Amir of the time. At the time of his death he made his son Yazid the Governor of Khorasan and the other son the Imam (leader) of the Salat (prayer). He called all his sons to him and exhorted them saying:

"I want you to fear Allâh and treat your relatives kindly, for these acts prolong life, increase wealth and offspring. I warn you against giving up the fear of Allâh and kind treatment for their renunciation leads to Hell, causes disgrace and decreases offspring. It is compulsory for you to obey the Amir and agree with the Muslims. It is fitting that your actions be better than your words. Avoid answering impulsively and safeguard your tongue from a slip, for a man can controls the slip of the feet but the slip of the tongue ruins him. Give the people their dues because this just and equitable action is better than sitting and gossiping in the morning and in the evening and talking uselessly. Don't be deceived by flatterers, prefer generosity to miserliness, revive goodness and try to do good, be active and alert in war and for this valor is necessary. When there is a confrontation, destiny or death falls from heaven. If the man is prepared to act and acts cleverly, he achieves success. If he gets nervous, he fails but Allâh's Order dominates all. Make the recitation and learning of the Qur'ân, the application of the 'Sunnah', and respect for the pious compulsory for yourself. Avoid talking unnecessarily at meetings."

Hajjaj bin Yusuf and Abdur Rahman bin Mohammad

It has been mentioned above that in 78 A.H., Hajjaj had deputed Muhallab and Obaidullah bin Abi Bakra as governors of Khorasan, and Sajistan and Sindh respectively. Sindh and Sajistan had continuously been under attack by the Hindus from the east and by the Turks and the Mongols from the north. Hence, Hajjaj gave Hamyan bin Adi an active, agile and well-armed division of an army and stationed them at Kerman (city, provincial capital, and province in southeastern Iran) with the instructions to help the Governors of Sajistan and Sindh when needed. Obaidullah bin Abi Bakra arrived in his province and became busy with its affairs. Hamyan bin Adi, seeing a big army under his command at Kerman, rebelled and instead of helping Obaidullah, started attacking his province. When informed, Hajjaj sent Abdur Rahman bin Mohammad bin Ash'ath to discipline Hamyan bin Adi. Abdur Rahman defeated and drove him away and after staying for a few days at Kerman returned. It has been mentioned above that the king of Turkistan named Ratbeel had made peace with the Muslims by promising them to pay taxes. When Obaidullah came, he continued to pay him the taxes but then prepared to rebel against him. Ratbeel controlled Badakhshan, Kafiristan and Afghanistan up to Tibet. Obaidullah invaded his territory. He fled and lured Obaidullah into following him and took him to a place where the journey was very arduous. Finally, the Muslims were surrounded inside the passes of a very mountainous area. Many were killed. Shuraih bin Hani was also killed there. Those who returned, were in a very miserable condition. When Hajjaj was informed of the destruction of the army, he reported to Abdul Malik and sought his permission to invade Ratbeel's territory. Abdul Malik granted the permission and Hajjaj took twenty thousand men from Kufa and twenty thousand infantry from Basra and made Abdur Rahman bin Mohammad bin Ash'ath the commander of these veteran armies. Meanwhile news arrived of the death of Obaidullah bin Abi Bakra in Sajistan.

Hajjaj granted Abdur Rahman credentials and a certificate of Governorship of Sajistan and sent him to invade Ratbeel's territory When Abdur Rahman arrived there with the Islamic forces and Ratbeel was informed of it, Ratbeel was extremely nervous but could do nothing about it. Abdur Rahman began to conquer his country and took care to depute guards near passes and valleys as he moved forward. In short, he conquered half of his country and postponed a further advance until the following year. He informed Hajjaj of the victory by letter and also told him that the rest of the country remained to be conquered which would be done the following year so that he could consolidate his position and manage the affairs of the conquered territory efficiently and the army could also be refreshed.

Hajjaj was very angry when he read the letter. He at once ordered him to continue his advance, slay Ratbeel's soldiers in captivity and pull down their forts. He had written a second and third letter of the same content before the first one reached him. In the third letter he said: "If you obey my order, good; if you disobey, deem yourself dismissed and your brother Ishaq bin Mohammad bin Ash'ath will be the commander of the army." Those three orders reached Abdur Rahman one after another. Abdur Rahman read them and called the army together and made the following speech:

"I had decided our present strategy after consulting you that we would manage the conquered territories of the Turks and after fortifying ourselves and completing the required preparations, we would conquer the rest of the territory the following year. However, Hajjaj writes to us to fight with them without making any further delay. He does not care for your fatigue and the necessity of your recuperation. This is the same country where our brothers were destroyed. I am also your brother and a man like you. If you are ready, fight and move forward. I am also with you."

Hearing the speech, all the Kufans and Basraites flew into a rage and said in one voice, "We won't obey Hajjaj." All bin Wasia said, "Hajjaj is Allâh's enemy. Dismiss him and take the oath with Abdur Rahman bin Ash'ath bin Rabia." All unanimously cried out, "Yes, yes. We all agree to it." Abdur Rahman stood up and asked them, "Let us go and turn Allâh's enemy Hajjaj out of our city." Hearing it, all rushed to take the oath at his hands and all took a pledge that they would not rest until Hajjaj was expelled from Iraq. At that same time, Abdur Rahman sent word to Ratbeel and an agreement for peace was at once signed on the condition that if they succeeded in the expulsion of Hajjaj, all taxes on Ratbeel's territory would be excused. If Hajjaj won, Ratbeel would prevent Hajjaj's soldiers from entering his country and fight against him.

The army therefore left the conquered territory and returned to Iraq. When Hajjaj was informed about it, he wrote to Abdul Malik about the gravity of the situation and requested him to send an army to help him. Abdul Malik did accordingly. When Muhallab came to know the details, he wrote to Hajjaj in support: "Let the Iraqis return home but for the time don't do anything with them in the least."

Hajjaj did not appreciate his advice; he actually came to harbor an ill feeling against the Iraqis in his heart. He misunderstood Muhallab and Hajjaj felt that Muhallab being the governor of Khorasan, might also have been their adviser and was sympathetic to them. When Abdul Malik's army arrived, Hajjaj took it and moved beyond Basra, and arrived at Tustar (in Khuzestan, an Iranian province at the top of the Arabian Gulf) and sent ahead a division. Abdur Rahman had also come nearer. His soldiers defeated and routed Hajjaj's soldiers and put a good number of them to death.

Thus compelled Hajjaj returned to Basra and turned to a place named Zawia. Abdur Rahman entered Basra directly. The Basraites took the oath at his hands. Hajjaj recalled Muhallab's advice and then realized that what he had written was quite right. The Basraites were sick of Hajjaj's strictness and all were bent on annulling Abdul Malik's caliphate and fighting with Hajjaj.

This occurred at the end of Dhul Hijja 81 A.H. Then a series of battles between Hajjaj and Abdur Rahman started in the beginning of Ramadan 82 A.H. First Hajjaj won, then Abdur Rahman won. However, a battle that took place on 29 Muharram 82 A.H. saw Abdur Rahman badly defeated. He took his defeated men and went to Kufa and occupied Kufa's Darul Emarah (the Amir's headquarter). Following Abdur Rahman bin Mohammad's defeat, the Basraites took the oath at the hands of Abdur Rahman bin Abbas bin Rabia bin Harith bin Abdul Mutallib and continued the chain of battles and confrontations with Hajjaj.

Hajjaj and Muhallab Honored: Conquests in Khorasan and the Betrayal of Kush

Hajjaj and Muhallab Honored

For Abdul Malik bin Marwan, the greatest danger next to Abdullah bin Zubair (رضي الله عنه) was the challenge of the Khawârij. Had he remained indifferent to Khawârij and had he not taken their threat seriously and had he not become busy planning their extermination, then the provinces of Khorasan, Iraq and Persia would have gone out of his hands. No one was better suited for the governorship of Iraq to put down the rebellions than Hajjaj. He came to Iraq and fulfilled his obligations excellently. The selection of Muhallab for disciplining the Khawârij was also right. Then after years of struggle and crowned with success he handed over to Hajjaj's control Kufa and Basra, which included Khorasan and Sajistan but excluding the rest of Iraq. He made Hajjaj the leader of all the Islamic countries of the east. Hajjaj then made Muhallab bin Abi Sofra and Obaidullah bin Abu Bakra the Amirs of Khorasan and Sajistan respectively. Muhallab, up to this point a famous general, was honored by being made the Amir of Khorasan.

Muhallab lived in Basra until 80 A.H. and sent his son Habib, as the Amir of Khorasan on his own behalf. He went to Khorasan and in accordance with his father's instructions did not disturb Umayya bin Abdullah and his staff nor did he reduce their honor. Hajjaj married Muhallab's daughter Hind bint Muhallab and in this way, he came to be related to Hajjaj.

In 80 A.H., Muhallab himself went to Khorasan and took over the reign of the country and taking five thousand men advanced towards Mawaraunnahr (between the Amu [Oxus] and Syr rivers in modern Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan) and surrounded Kush city. At that time, the relative of the king of Khutan came to him and asked for help. Muhallab sent his son Yazid to accompany him. Yazid killed the king of Khutan and gave the territory to his relative and received a written agreement, in keeping with his father's instructions, he returned.

It was during that same period Muhallab gave four thousand men to his son, Habib, to invade Bukhara. The governor of Bukhara fought against these four thousand men, the result was a victory for Habib and defeat for the people of Bukhara. Habib returned to Muhallab with a large amount of spoils of war. The siege of Kush continued for two years. At last, the besieged decided it was better to pay the 'jizya' (a tax on non Muslims under Islamic rule which exonerates them from military service) and Muhallab, following the reconciliation, returned from there.

The Betrayal of the People of Kush city and Huraith bin Qatna

When Muhallab came to Merv, the capital of Khorasan and then moved to the city of Kush, he left Mughira his son as Amir in his absence. While the siege of Kush was continuing, the news of Mughira's death reached Muhallab. Muhallab deputed his son, Yazid as the Administrator of Merv and sent him there with thirty men.

When he reached a pass near Bast, he confronted a raiding party of five hundred Turks. The Turks demanded all their possessions. Yazid refused. At last, one of his associates made them agree to take a little money. They took it and went away but immediately returned and told Yazid and his troops that they would not be spared without surrendering all their belongings.

Yazid with his thirty men fought with them and killed their leader and forced them to run away. Upon his arrival in Merv, he began to rule in place of his brother. A short time after that incident, Muhallab made peace with the people of Kush and returned. It was agreed that the inhabitants of Kush would hand over their king's sons to the Muslims and they would remain in their custody until the inhabitants of Kush paid the agreed amount to the Muslims. Muhallab had left Huraith bin Qatna there to collect the amount and return the boys. When Muhallab left Kush and arrived at Balkh, he sent word to Yazid and Huraith bin Qatna: "Don't return the boys after collecting the payment until you enter Balkh."

Muhallab's intention was to warn of the danger, which Huraith had to face. Huraith at once showed the letter to the people of Kush and said to them, "If you pay me the amount of 'jizya' at once, I shall hand over your boys to you now and tell Amir Muhallab that I had given back the boys to the people of Kush after collecting the amount, before this letter reached me." The people of Kush paid the money and took back the boys.

Upon his return from Kush, the marauding Turks treated Huraith in the same way they had treated Yazid. There was a fight and many of Huraith's men were killed and many were captured and they were released only after paying a ransom. When Harith reached Muhallab, the latter had him lashed twenty times for violating his orders. After the punishment, he swore that he would kill Muhallab. When Muhallab came to know of it, he sent for Huraith's brother Thabit bin Qatna and made him understand the situation in a calm way. He called Harith to him and Huraith repeated his impertinent oath. Muhallab ignored it and dismissed him. Huraith and Thabit feared for their positions and taking their three hundred men with them, fled from him and went to Musa bin Abdullah bin Hazim at Termiz. Musa bin Abdullah, as mentioned earlier had founded an independent state and was at war with the governor of Khorasan. This took place in 82 A.H.