The Revolt of Ibn Tabataba, Abu Saraya, and Its Suppression

The Revolt of Ibn Tabataba and Abu Saraya

Abu Saraya bin Mansoor was related to the tribe of Banu Shaiban. During Ameen's Caliphate, he was in the army of the governor of Jazirah. There he murdered a man belonging to Banu Tamim. When the governor of Jazirah ordered his arrest for the crime, he escaped and with 30 persons who joined him began plundering whatever and wherever they could.

After a short time, he along with his group went to Yazid bin Mizyad in Armenia. Yazid bin Mizyad appointed him to the rank of general. When Yazid bin Mizyad died, he began to live with his son Asad bin Yazid. When Asad was deposed from the governorship of Armenia, Abu Saraya went to Ahmad bin Mizyad. When Ameen deputed Ahmad bin Mizyad to fight with Harsimah, Ahmad bin Mizyad made him chief of the vanguard of the army. Harsimah entered into a conspiracy with him and he went over to Harsimah's side.

He then called the men of his tribe Banu Shaiban to him 2000 of them responded and joined Harsimah's army. Abu Saraya made a recommendation on their behalf and handsome allowances were fixed for them. When Ameen was killed, Harsimah refused to pay the daily allowance to Banu Shaiban. Abu Saraya became angry with him and sought his permission to go for Hajj. Harsimah gave him the permission plus a sum of 20,000 dirhams for the expenses of his journey. He divided the amount among his men and told them to come to him in ones and twos to avoid suspicion. Abu Saraya took leave of Harsimah and left ostensibly for the purpose of Hajj. He halted on the way and 200 men rallied round him there. He arrayed them and invaded Ainuttamar and arrested the rulers there. Ainuttamar was looted and the spoils were distributed among his men. He continued plundering and looted government treasuries in several places.

Harsimah sent an army to punish and arrest him. Abu Saraya defeated them and forced them to escape. More men joined Abu Saraya and his power increased. Then he defeated the ruler of Waquqa and looted the treasury. He went to Ambar, killed its ruler Ibrahim Sharwi, looted the town, and distributed the spoils among his men. He went to Riqqah where he came across Mohammad bin Ibrahim bin Ismail bin Ibrahim bin Hasan bin Muthanna bin Ali who declared his Caliphate and left Riqqah with Abu Saraya. Mohammad bin Ibrahim's father was known as Ibrahim Tabataba and he was known as Ibn Tabataba.

It was at this time that Hasan bin Sahal arrived in the Baghdad after being appointed the governor there and in Yemen and Hijaz. The Arabs in general looked upon the increase of non-Arab power with hatred and apprehension and regarded Mamoon's caliphate as harmful to them and the Alawiites became busy taking advantage of it.

Nasr bin Sheeth announced that he was not an enemy to the Abbasids but he opposed the present regime simply because it preferred non-Arabs to Arabs. The announcement made an impact on the Arab chiefs of the army and their activities were very lax against Nasr bin Sheeth.

Hasan bin Sahal at the same time was displeased with Harsimah and sent him to Khorasan. Abu Saraya took Mohammad bin Ibrahim's (Ibn Tabataba) presence as a sign of good fortune and took the oath for his caliphate. Ibn Tabataba sent Abu Saraya to Kufa by boat along the river and he himself went to Kufa by land. According to plan Abu Saraya and Ibn Tabataba entered Kufa on 15 Jamad-al-Thani 199 A.H. from two different directions and looted the palace of Abbas bin Musa bin Isa which was the governor's residence and which also housed the royal treasury. The entire city was brought under control and all the civilians took the oath for ibn Tabataba's Caliphate.

When Hasan bin Sahal was informed of the occupation of Kufa by Abu Saraya and Ibn Tabataba, he sent Zuhair bin Musayyib with 10,000 men to Kufa. They came out of Kufa and clashed with Zuhair and defeated him. Abu Saraya looted Zuhair's military camp, killed and plundered the people mercilessly. Ibn Tabataba forbade him to indulge in merciless killing and plundering. Abu Saraya who had become accustomed to such killing and plundering could not tolerate the interference and he had Ibn Tabataba poisoned. The next day he was found dead and the period of his authority and conquest ended. Abu Saraya had a young boy Mohammad bin Jafar bin Mohammad bin Zaid bin Ali bin Husain bin Ali bin Abi Talib, Ibn Tabataba's deputy and took the oath for him and began to run and manage all state affairs using him as a figure head.

Abu Saraya's Government and its End

After being defeated, Zuhair bin Musayyib went to Qasr bin Hubairah and stayed there. Hasan bin Sahal gave Abdus bin Mohammad bin Khalid Marwarozi 4,000 men and sent him to reinforce Zuhair. Zuhair and Abdus attacked Kufa but were defeated and killed on 15 Rajab 199 A.H. while fighting against Abu Saraya. Following the victory Abu Saraya issued coins in his name in Kufa, appointed several Alawiites as governors of several provinces. He sent Abbas bin Mohammad bin Isa bin Mohammad to Ahwaz, Husain bin Hasan bin Ali bin Husain bin Ali bin Abi Talib known as Aftas to Makkah, Ibrahim bin Musa bin Jafar Sadiq to Yemen and Zaid bin Musa bin Jafar Sadiq to Basra after defeating its ruler. Abbas captured Basra. All the governors of Abu Saraya scored victories. Abu Saraya wrote to Abbas bin Mohammad to take an army from Ahwaz and invade Baghdad from the eastern side while he stayed at Qasr ibn Hubairah. Hasan bin Sahal sent Ali bin Sayeed from Baghdad to Madain in defense of Madain and Wasit. When Abu Saraya found this out, he at once sent an army from Qasr ibn Hubairah, which occupied Madain in Ramadan 199 A.H. before the arrival of Ali bin Sayeed. Abu Saraya himself left Qasr Ibn Hubairah and camped at the Sarsar River. Ali bin Sayeed reached Madain and besieged Abu Saraya's army in Shawwal 199 A.H. Receiving the news that his army had been encircled, Abu Saraya left the Sarsar River and marched towards Qasr ibn Hubairah.

When the armies sent by Hasan bin Sahal suffered defeat at the hands of Abu Saraya and his leaders were killed and captured in Rajab 199 A.H., Hasan bin Sahal was very worried. At that time Tahir was in Riqqah and could not leave due to Nasr bin Sheeth. Harsimah had left Baghdad and gone to Khorasan. Except these two commanders, Hasan bin Sahal had no other commander at his disposal to be sent against Abu Saraya. Abu Saraya had begun making preparations to conquer Baghdad. He had already captured Basra, Kufa, Wasit, and Madain, Hasan bin Sahal and Harsimah were at odds with each other. Hasan did not want to seek help from Harsimah but in view of the critical situation, he sent a fast messenger to Harsimah asking him to return and tackle the affair of Abu Saraya. Harsimah did not want to make Hasan bin Sahal's affairs easier. However, since Hasan had personally requested help, he did not think it proper to refuse and immediately returned to Baghdad. He entered the city at the time Abu Saraya had already left the Sarsar River for Qasr Ibn Hubairah after hearing about the siege of Madain. Harsimah left Baghdad in pursuit of Abu Saraya without any hesitation. He came across a group of Abu Saraya's supporters and he surrounded and killed them. He moved quickly and caught up with Abu Saraya. Abu Saraya attacked. The battle resulted in the death of many of his men but Abu Saraya escaped. He went to Kufa and looted the houses of Banu Abbas and their supporters and reduced them to rubble capturing all their goods, belongings and valuables. Harsimah moved forward, and besieged Kufa. Abu Saraya showed great perseverance in defense in a two month long siege of Kufa. Being compelled by the siege, he took Mohammad bin Jafar bin Mohammad and 800 horsemen and escaped from Kufa. Harsimah entered Kufa on 15 Muharram 200 A.H. appointed an administrator there and returned to Baghdad.

Abu Saraya left Kufa for Qadsiyah. Then he went towards Tus. He came across a caravan, which was going from Ahwaz loaded with merchandise. He looted it and distributed the loot among his men.

During the same period, Hasan bin Ali Mamooni expelled Abu Saraya's governor from Ahwaz and occupied it. When Hasan bin Ali heard about Abu Saraya's condition, he took an army from Ahwaz and went in pursuit of Abu Saraya. When they clashed, Abu Saraya suffered a crushing defeat. After being defeated, he went to Rasain in Jalula. Hasan bin Ali quickly surrounded and captured him along with Mohammad Jafar bin Mohammad and sent them to Hasan bin Sahal. He had Abu Saraya slaughtered and hung his corpse on the bridge of Baghdad. He sent his head and the head of Mohammad bin Jafar bin Mohammad to Mamoon. Ali bin Sayeed conquered Madain, slaughtered Abu Saraya's men and went to Wasit and captured it in accordance with Hasan bin Sahal's order and then left Wasit for Basra. He dethroned Zaid bin Musa bin Jafar Sadiq there and captured Basra. Zaid bin Musa set fire to all the houses of Banu Abbas and their supporters. He came to be known as Zaid an-Nar (Zaid the fire). Ali bin Sayeed arrested Zaid an-Nar and put him in confinement. In Muharram 200 A.H., the corruption of Abu Saraya in Iraq came to an end but Hijaz and Yemen were still reeling under the disturbances and unrest that he had started.

Ameen’s Caliphate Reviewed and Mamoon’s Rise to Abbasid Power

A Review of Ameen's Caliphate

Caliph Ameen was 27 or 28 years old. He had been caliph for 4 years and 7 months. His entire reign was plagued with riots and carnage. Thousands of Muslims were killed for only political reasons. His regime was one of troubles, evils and misfortunes for the world of Islam. Ameen was well versed in syntax and literature and composed verse proficiently, he honored the scholars but he was inclined to sports and amusement. In matters of administration and expeditions, he was a misfit. Immediately after becoming Caliph, he ordered a polo field to be built near the palace of Mansoor. He paid special attention to decoration and beautification projects. He was fond of singing and playing musical instruments and worshipping beauty. His greatest trouble was the body of selfish ministers none of whom ever reminded him that he was a soldier and he should not dally with women.

In brief, Ameen was overwhelmed with his own youthful passions and totally devoid of the ability to conquer and rule. Fadal bin Rabi, his Prime Minister, did not prove to be a good minister for the dynasty of the Abbasids. It was he who was instrumental in having the army and the equipment which should have remained under Mamoon's control in keeping with Haroon's will, brought from Tus to Baghdad. He tried to harm Mamoon and sowed seeds of contention between the two brothers. Mamoon would have probably tolerated this as a small matter and Ameen would not have turned against Mamoon just for the sake of his extravagance. However, the next destructive act that Fadal bin Rabi had Ameen accomplish was beyond the limit of reconciliation.

The removal of Mamoon from the succession and the installation of his own infant son as the next Caliph destroyed Haroon's well-documented plans for his sons. In order to establish the succession of his son, Ameen had to capture the territory that belonged to Mamoon in accordance with Haroon's will and distribution. He had the official document of Caliph Haroon Rasheed removed from the Ka'bah and destroyed at the instance of Fadal bin Rabi. Consequently, all the influential members of the Abbasid dynasty were offended and disgusted with him at the inferred disrespect to his father and even the holy sites.

If we ponder a little we can easily infer that the man who is responsible for all this damage done to Islam is Haroon Rasheed. The biggest blunder and the most condemnable act of Haroon Rasheed was that he was dishonest in naming his successors. He knew that Mamoon was more capable and deserving yet he chose Ameen to take the caliphate. A plea may be offered from Haroon's side that Ameen was noble born from both sides and a pure Hashimiite and Mamoon's mother was Iranian and he had apprehensions that Mamoon would weaken the Arab elements and promote and strengthen Iranian authority and power.

Haroon chose Ameen as his successor because he was a pure Arab and Hashimiite and he believed Ameen would successfully continue his policy of breaking the Iranians power that he had adopted at the end of his caliphate. Ameen's heart and mind were not suited for this purpose. Haroon was aware of this in the last year of his life and he had become fully convinced of Mamoon's ability to rule and Ameen's inability. If we go deeper, we will find that Haroon Rasheed was not at fault but the fundamental policy adopted and followed by the Abbasids from the very beginning of their dynasty was bound to yield these results.

First, the Abbasids opposed the Arabs by using the Khorasanis. They put all their energy into effacing and destroying Arab power and influence and made the newly converted Khorasanis the leaders. Mention has been made above about the order given by the leaders of the Abbasids to Abu Muslim not to spare even a single Arabic speaking soul and Abu Muslim put to death 600,000 Arabs in Khorasan and Iran. The joint efforts of the Alawiites and the Abbasids aimed against Banu Umayyah weakened the Arab's influence and power and strengthened the Khorasanis, Persians and Iraqis. Every conspiracy against Banu Umayyah that proved fruitful was supported and implemented by the Iraqis and the Khorasanis. When the Banu Umayyah were destroyed, the Alawiites stood as mute spectators while the Abbasids became the masters of the caliphate and authority. When the Alawiites began to oppose the Abbasids and initiated a series of conspiracies against them, the Abbasids received aid from the Iraqis and Khorasanis.

Those who were goaded to kill the Arabs against Banu Umayyah became the greatest threat to the Abbasids. The Khorasanis power continued to rise until the regime of Mansoor Abbasi. Only for the short span of a few years during Mahdi's caliphate the Khorasanis rise stood still and the Arabs were honored. During Hadi and Haroon's regimes, the Khorasanis continued to increase their power. In the last years of his caliphate, Haroon realized that by weakening the Arabs they had harmed the caliphate considerably. He tried to correct the situation but death did not allow him to do so.

During Ameen's reign, the center of strength for the Arabs was Ameen and Mamoon for the Khorasanis. In other words, the clash between the two races Arabs and Iranians manifested itself through Ameen and Mamoon. Because Ameen was personally incapable and Mamoon was more capable, the Arab group lost and the Iranians became the masters of the Islamic world. The Khorasanis held Mamoon dear in order to bring under their control the machinery of the government and hand it over to the Alawiites after Mamoon.

Due to the sequence of events, they did not succeed and the government remained with the Abbasid dynasty. Later, the Khorasanis and newly converted Turks gathered enough courage and power to decimate the power of the Islamic Caliphate and form their own separate kingdoms. The details of which will follow in the next chapter. The substance of the matter is that the curse of the son succeeding his father and inherited rule is the root cause of these evils, troubles and defects in the Islamic Caliphate and it was this innovation that has done the greatest harm to the Muslims and kept the inherent justice of Islamic government from being maintained. The defects of Ameen's regime were the by products of the curse of inherited succession.

It is a coincidence that the three Caliphs Ali (رضي الله عنه), Imam Hasan (رضي الله عنه) and Ameen Rasheed were Hashimiite from both mother and father and the Caliphate did not obviously suit them. That is, the entire regime of Ali (رضي الله عنه) passed in internal conflicts and civil war among the Muslims and eventually he was martyred. Imam Hasan (رضي الله عنه) renounced the Caliphate and he still was poisoned to death. Similarly, Ameen's entire period of rule was dominated by internecine fights at the end of which he too was killed.

Mamoon Rasheed

Mamoon Rasheed bin Haroon Rasheed's given name was Abdullah. His father gave him the title "Mamoon." His kunya (father of, generally followed by the name of the first son) was Abul Abbas (father of Abbas). He was born on Friday in the middle of Rabi-al-Awwal 170 A.H. The night Mamoon was born Hadi, his uncle who preceded his father as Caliph, died. His mother's name was Marajil. She was a Zoroastrian slave girl and died within forty days of his birth. She was born in Badighais in Herat. Ali bin Isa, the governor of Khorasan, had presented her as a gift to Haroon Rasheed. Mamoon did not have the opportunity of being brought up in the lap of his mother. However, Haroon Rasheed paid special attention to his upbringing and training. At the age of five, he was put under the tutelage of Kasai Nahvi and Yazeedi. They taught him Quran and Arabic literature.

At 12 when Mamoon achieved understanding and intellectual ability by virtue of his divine gifted intelligence, he was made the apprentice of Jafar Barmuk. In the same year 182 A.H., Haroon nominated him to be the heir apparent after his half brother Ameen. Besides these teachers there were many religious scholars and those blessed with deep knowledge of Islam at Haroon's court and they were requested to educate him from time to time. Mamoon memorized the entire Quran and was a great scholar. He was eloquent and clever. He was slightly older than his brother Ameen. He had studied Islamic Law and Hadith under the guidance of great scholars of these subjects. Haroon had both his sons educated and trained with great interest and attention however, the impact this produced in Mamoon was not shared by Ameen.

Although Mamoon Rasheed had been the ruler of the eastern countries including Khorasan since Jumad-al-Thani 193 A.H. when Haroon died, the period of his caliphate begins from Muharram 198 A.H. when Ameen was killed. Ameen was killed on the night of 25 Muharram and the oath for Mamoon's caliphate was taken on Friday 26 Muharram 198 A.H.

When Mamoon was informed about Ameen's murder and the capture of Baghdad by his army and his recognition as caliph by the people of Baghdad, he gave the governorship of Jabal Faras, Ahwaz, Basra, Kufa, Hijaz, and Yemen, to Hasan bin Sahal, the brother of his minister Fadal bin Sahal and sent him to Baghdad. Harsimah bin Ayun and Tahir bin Husain had conquered these territories and it was by virtue of their courage that the people of Baghdad recognized Mamoon as caliph and Ameen was defeated.

Tahir who did the most to achieve the victory expected that he would be given the governorship of the newly conquered territories. Contrary to his expectations it was given to Hasan bin Sahal. Hasan bin Sahal then made Tahir bin Husain the governor of Jazirah, Mousil and Syria and sent him to fight with Nasr bin Sheeth bin Aqeel bin Kab bin Rabia bin Amir who had taken the oath of allegiance to Ameen and had collected a huge army to fight against Mamoon's forces and he continued to conquer territory in Iraq. When Hasan bin Sahal was appointed governor and next to the caliph, the civilians were sure that he would completely dominate Mamoon and the Iranians would be the dominant force in the government. The Arab leaders were worried about these developments and they felt discouraged and disappointed. They were convinced that Mamoon would retain Merv as his capital in deference to Fadal bin Sahal's wishes and would not come to Baghdad.

When Hasan bin Sahal sent Tahir to face Nasr bin Sheeth bin Aqeel, he only had limited success. He stayed at Riqqah and continued to engage in light skirmishes with Nasr bin Sheeth. While in Riqqah, Tahir received the news of his father Husain bin Zuraiq bin Mus'ab's death in Khorasan and Caliph Mamoon's participation in it. Hasan bin Sahal ordered Harsimah bin Ayun to go to Khorasan. Nasr bin Sheeth bin Aqeel rebelled simply because the non-Arabs were given priority over the Arabs. Tahir did not concentrate on defeating Nasr, as he himself disliked the domination of the Arabs by the non-Arabs. Harsimah bin Ayun, who was one of the old devotees of the Abbasid dynasty, looked at the rise of the non-Arabs with apprehension.

Tahir’s Conquests, Siege of Baghdad, and the Death of Ameen

Tahir's Conquests

While Baghdad was witnessing these destructive events, Tahir bin Husain handed over the conquered territories to Harsimah bin Ayun in Halwan and proceeded to Ahwāz on the orders of Mamoon. Before his departure he sent Husain bin Omar Rustami to intercept any armies coming from Baghdad. Following the return of Abdullah bin Humaid bin Qahtabah and Ahmad bin Mizyad, Caliph Ameen sent Muhammad bin Yazid bin Hatim from Baghdad to defend Ahwāz. Hearing that Muhammad bin Yazid was coming from Baghdad with an army, Tahir dispatched a few divisions of his army to reinforce Husain bin Omar Rustami and issued orders for them to join Husain bin Omar Rustami as soon as possible. When Muhammad bin Yazid reached Mokarram, he was informed of the reinforcements sent by Tahir. He did not think it proper to face them before he first captured Ahwāz. He arrived at Ahwāz where he faced Tahir. Following a bitter battle Muhammad bin Yazid was killed. Tahir captured Ahwāz and sent administrators to Yamama, Bahrain and Oman. Then he went to Wasit. Its ruler ran away and Tahir easily captured it. Then he sent his forces to Kufa. The governor, Abbas bin Hadi, quickly announced Ameen's deposition and took the oath for Mamoon's caliphate and wrote a letter to Tahir to that effect. The governor of Basra, Mansoor bin Mahdi also followed suit. Kufa and Basra were the most important and strategic locations in Iraq. The governors of both these places were related to the family of the caliph. They preferred Mamoon to Ameen and recognized the overthrow of Ameen and the caliphate of Mamoon and thereby set an example to be followed by others. Dawood bin Isa, the governor of Hijaz who was also from the family of the caliph also took the oath for Mamoon in the Hijaz as has been mentioned above. Even the governor of Mousil, Muttalib bin Abdullah bin Malik announced Ameen's overthrow and recognized Mamoon as caliph and took the oath. Tahir retained them all in their posts. He camped at Jarjaraya and sent Harith bin Hisham and Dawood bin Musa to Qasr bin Hubairah. This event took place in Rajab 196 A.H. when Baghdad was witnessing the deposition and accession of Ameen caused by Husain bin Ali bin Isa as mentioned previously.

Assuming power again after being removed Caliph Ameen sent Muhammad bin Sulaiman and Muhammad bin Hammad Berberi to Qasr bin Hubairah and Fadal bin Musa to Kufa. Harith and Dawood fought with Muhammad bin Sulaiman and Muhammad bin Hammad and after a hard fight forced them to flee back to Baghdad. Tahir then deputed Muhammad bin Ala to face Fadal bin Musa. When they met each other on the way, Fadal said to Muhammad bin Ala, "You have unjustly come to fight with me. I have come as an obedient man to Mamoon." At night Fadal attacked Muhammad's troops. However, Muhammad bin Ala anticipated a possible night attack, and was on his guard. He gave Fadal a tough fight, defeated and forced him to flee to Baghdad. Then Tahir turned his attention to Madain where Caliph Ameen's biggest army was deployed and reinforcements and supplies from Baghdad continued to reach there uninterruptedly. As soon as Tahir had arrived there, Ameen's entire army fled to Baghdad. He captured Madain and camped at the Sarsar River and had a bridge constructed there. When Caliph Ameen sent his armies to Qasr bin Hubairah and Kufa, he had also sent Ali bin Muhammad bin Isa bin Naheek to fight Harsimah bin Ayun. The battle took place at Nahrwān. Harsimah defeated Ali bin Muhammad's army and put them to flight, captured Ali bin Muhammad and sent him to Mamoon at Merv. He himself came to Nahrwān instead of Halwān and camped there.

The Death of Ameen

Every army deployed by Ameen was defeated by Mamoon's commanders and his two powerful generals Tahir bin Husain and Harsimah bin Ayun continued to march towards Baghdad from two different directions. After the provinces of Mousil, Wasit, Kufa, Basra, Hijaz and Yamama, went out of Ameen's control his caliphate was confined to Baghdad and its outskirts. Following the continual failures of his armies, a very critical and dangerous period started for Ameen from Ramadan 196 A.H. Being compelled Ameen sent secret messages to the soldiers in Tahir's army and conspired to win them over in exchange for gifts.

By this method, 5,000 soldiers from Tahir's army stationed at the Sarsar River went over to Ameen in Baghdad. Then some military commanders also joined Ameen. He honored them and bestowed on them gifts and rewards in accordance with their qualifications and status. He was able to form a huge army and sent it to face Tahir. The battle raged from the morning to the evening resulting ultimately in the defeat and collapse of Ameen's army. The runaways arrived in Baghdad and Ameen formed a new and fresh army that did not include any of the defeated soldiers and sent it again to Sarsar. It also met the same fate.

Now Tahir and Harsimah left Sarsar and Nahrwān respectively and set out for Baghdad. Tahir camped at Ambār and Harsimah made fortifications at the river. Abdullah bin Waddah camped at Shamasiyah and Musayyub bin Zuhair at the palace of Kalwāze. In this way, Mamoon's generals encircled Baghdad and put the civilian population to great difficulty. Meanwhile, Ameen sold his gold and silver ornaments, utensils and precious goods and disbursed salaries to his army and spent all he had on defense.

The siege continued for about one year and three months. Whatever difficulties and inconveniences the people of Baghdad and Ameen's generals had to undergo and the bravery with which they fought are undoubtedly worthy of praise but all those acts were fruitless and unwise. Sayeed bin Qadim received security and pardon and joined Tahir who entrusted him with the task of digging moats and finishing the fortifications.

The besiegers included Harsimah and Tahir, two great generals, but Tahir by virtue of his conquests and fighting ability was more popular and he was regarded as the Commander-in-chief of the entire army. Ameen had deputed a few chiefs at Qasr Saleh and Qasr Sulaiman situated outside of Baghdad and next to the Tigris River. They were engaged in launching fireballs and stones with the help of catapults in order to break the dikes and fortifications of the besieging army.

Tahir was replying in kind by shooting stones and fireballs. The besieging army advanced and quickly dug moats and more fortifications. They reached the city wall by narrowing the circle of the siege and entered by the city gate and by pulling down and over running the battlements. Then they had to fight in every district and at every step until they surrounded Ameen in Madinat al-Mansoor (the royal district). There was a ban on the import of grain and other necessities of life, criminals were released from the jails and the wicked and evil ran rampant in the city. Influential and brave generals continued to leave Ameen and join Tahir due to his efforts to bring them to his side.

The nobility of the city kept leaving and many districts were deserted. Muhammad bin Isa, Yahya bin Ali bin Isa bin Haman and Muhammad bin Abi Abbas Tai joined Tahir one after another. The places they were defending also surrendered to Tahir. Ameen stood like a rock in defense. At last he entrusted all the war operations to Muhammad bin Isa bin Naheek. The newly recruited Baghdad army attacked on the side where the army of Abdullah bin Waddah was camped and defeated him and captured Shamasiyah. Harsimah rushed to aid him. He was also defeated and taken captive. His men through trickery were able to release him. When Tahir was informed of the setbacks, he himself went to that side, led a very fierce attack and made Ameen's army retreat and had Abdullah bin Waddah reestablish the front. By degrees, Tahir distributed his army all over the city and besieged Ameen in the royal district. Ameen stood the hardships of the siege with great perseverance. From among the officials of his governments only Hatim bin Saqr, Hasan Huraishi and Muhammad bin Ibrahim bin Aghlab Afriqi accompanied him. Muhammad bin Ibrahim Aghlab said to Ameen,

"Even in this deteriorating situation 7,000 cavaliers are ready to carry out your every order. You should select the sons of the nobility and the officials of the government and appoint an officer to lead them leave through a gate when the enemies are off their guard and go to Jazirah and Syria and found a new government. It is possible that after some time the people may be inclined towards you and a good way to achieve your goals may emerge."

If Ameen had acted upon this advice, he would not have met the fate he encountered. When Tahir came to know of Ameen's intention he wrote to Sulaiman bin Mansoor and Muhammad bin Isa bin Naheek that if they did not stop him from doing so, it would not be good for them. Afraid of Tahir both went to Ameen and said, "It is not proper for the Amir al-Muminin to surrender to Ibn Aghlab and Ibn Saqr. They are untrustworthy and unreliable. It is better to receive pardon and safety from Harsimah bin Ayun." When Ibn Saqr came to know that Caliph Ameen was ready to seek pardon and safety from Harsimah bin Ayun and hand himself over to him, he said, "O Amir al-Muminin! If you want pardon and safety you must ask Tahir for it.

Don't go under Harsimah's security. But Ameen said, "I will not seek pardon and safety from Tahir." Therefore, the message was sent to Harsimah and he gladly agreed. When Tahir was informed, he was determined to stop it thinking that the credit for the victory would go to Harsimah. He placed Ameen's palace under strict surveillance to thwart his attempt to escape. Harsimah had proposed to Ameen that at night he should leave his palace, step into his boat just under the palace and come under his protection. When Harsimah saw preparations on Tahir's side to stop him, he sent a message to Ameen requesting him to postpone that night because he had seen some activities on the riverside that indicated danger.

Ameen sent back the reply, "All my supporters and sympathizers have parted with me. I cannot stay here even for a moment. I feel apprehension that if Tahir finds out, he will capture and kill me." Eventually on 25 Muharram 198 A.H. at night, Ameen hugged his two children, kissed them, departed and came to the riverside weeping and sat in the boat. Harsimah who was present in the boat received him respectfully, kissed his hands and ordered the crew to move. As they started, Tahir's war boats surrounded them and began to attack their boat. Tahir's divers made holes in the boat and his men showered arrows from all four sides until it was flooded and sank. The crew caught Harsimah by his hair and saved him.

 Ameen began to swim and Tahir's men caught him. Ahmad bin Salim swam to the bank when he came out of the water, he was also arrested by Tahir's men. Ahmad bin Salim says I was arrested and presented before Tahir who threw me into captivity. A short time later Tahir's soldiers opened the door of the prison pushed Ameen in closed the door and then left. He was in his pajamas with a turban on his head and an old cloth over his shoulders. 1 read انا لله و انا اليه راجعون (To Allah do we belong and to Him is our return) and began to cry. He recognized me and asked me to hug him. I was over wrought and nervous.

I hugged him. When he came to his senses after some time, he asked me about Mamoon. I told him that he was alive and safe. Ameen said, "His advocate told me that Mamoon was dead. He probably thought that I might become indifferent to him." I said to him, "May Allah's curse be on your ministers who betrayed you." Then he gave vent to a cold sigh and said, "Why brother! Will these people not honor their word of pardon and safety? I said, "Inshallah they will keep it." As we were talking, Muhammad bin Humaid came, stood at a distance watching, recognized Ameen and went back.

At midnight, a few non-Arabs entered the prison with naked swords in their hands. Ameen began to move backward slowly to see them. One of them rushed forward, caught hold of him, threw him on the ground, slaughtered him, chopped off his head and returned with it. When morning came, they took away his dead body.

Tahir had Ameen's head publicly displayed. When the people had seen it fully, he sent it with the Caliph's ring, staff and coverlet to Mamoon through his cousin Muhammad bin Hasan bin Zuraiq bin Mus'ab and made a proclamation in the city to this effect. On Friday, he read the sermon in the name of Mamoon at the central mosque and condemned Ameen. He sent Ameen's sons, Musa and Abdullah to Mamoon. He then sent Ameen's mother Zubaidah Khatoon to a place near the river Zab. Tahir's army demanded their allowances. When they were not met, they rebelled. Tahir had to leave Baghdad to save his life. Then he called all his leaders, formed a group, entered Baghdad and forced the soldiers and the inhabitants of the city to obey him.

Tahir’s Victories, Ameen’s Deposition, and the Struggle for Abbasid Caliphate

To, Amir al-Muminin

Respectfully, I beg to state that I am writing this letter in such a situation that Ali bin Isa's head is lying before me, his ring is on my finger and his army is under my command.

The letter took three days to reach Fadal bin Sahal in Merv. He carried it to Mamoon and congratulated him on his victory and the officials of his government saluted him as the Amir al-Muminin. After two days Ali's head also arrived which was taken around the country and shown to the people.

When Baghdad received the news of Ali bin Isa's death, Ameen gave an army of 20,000 men to Abdur Rahman bin Jablah Ambari to fight with Tahir. Ambari was bestowed with the letter of governorship of Hamadan and Khorasan urging him to go, capture and form his government. Abdur Rahman bin jablah arrived at Hamadan and besieged its fort. When Tahir received the news, he took his army and marched towards Hamadan. Abdur Rahman Jablah left Hamadan to fight him. In the very first assault, Tahir defeated and forced them to flee. Abdur Rahman went back to Hamadan and made preparations to fight again, they clashed and Abdur Rahman's forces suffered defeat again and he entered Hamadan and took refuge their. Tahir moved forward and encircled the city and the siege became prolonged. During this period, Tahir conquered Qazwin making its administrators flee. The prolongation of the siege caused great inconvenience to the civilians and Abdur Rahman apprehended a night attack by the civilians themselves. He begged Tahir to grant him pardon and safety. Tahir granted it and brought Hamadan under his control. Tahir's granting Abdur Rahman pardon and safety allowed Abdur Rahman to live in Hamadan freely. One day Abdur Rahman found an opportunity, collected his men and launched a sudden attack on Tahir when he was off his guard. Tahir defeated and killed Abdur Rahman. His companions who survived fled and met Huraishi's sons, Abdullah and Ahmad who were coming from Baghdad to help him. Both were overawed at the prospect of fighting Tahir and they returned and went back to Baghdad without fighting. Tahir began to conquer city after city. He reached Halwan and made fortifications and had trenches dug. After these conquests, Mamoon made a proclamation that the oath for caliphate should be taken in every city and his name should be mentioned in the Friday sermon. It was at this point that he appointed Fadal bin Sahal as his Prime Minister. Under Fadal bin Sahal, Ali bin Hisham was made the Defense Minister and Naim bin Khazim Finance Minister and superintendent of the office of letters and composition. Fadal bin Sahal's brother Hasan bin Sahal, was made an officer in the Ministry of Taxes.

Disturbances in Caliph Ameen's Government

When Baghdad received the news of Abdur Rahman bin Jablah's death while fighting with Tahir, there was an uproar in the city. The Caliph called Asad bin Yazid bin Mizyad and sent him to confront Tahir. Asad bin Yazid said to him, "Please give my army salaries for a year in advance in addition to arms and equipment and promise that you will leave under our control any of the countries we capture. Give me veteran and brave fighters sorting out the weak ones." Ameen flew into a rage when he heard these conditions and sent him to jail. Then he sent for Abdullah bin Humaid bin Qahtabah and asked him to go and fight with Tahir. He also laid down similar conditions. He was also punished. Then Ameen called Asad bin Yazid's uncle Ahmad bin Mizyad and begged him to excuse him for imprisoning Asad and asked him to face Tahir. Ahmad bin Mizyad recommended to him to release Asad and he was freed. Ahmad bin Mizyad then left Baghdad with 20,000 fighters. Seeing this, Abdullah bin Humaid bin Qahtabah expressed his willingness to go fight with another 20,000 soldiers. Both set out for Halwān together. They both camped at Khafeqeen near Halwān with their forces. Tahir learned of their position and he also arrived there with his army. He spread his spies among the Baghdad army in disguise and they spread the rumors that the treasury in Baghdad had become empty and the soldiers were going without salary. The soldiers began looting whatever they could. This created confusion and anarchy. Some of the spies contradicted the rumor while others confirmed it. The situation deteriorated and there was dissension and quarrels among the troops and they returned to Baghdad without fighting. Tahir moved forward and occupied Halwān. Meanwhile Harsimah bin Ayun came to Tahir at Halwan with a huge army and letter from Mamoon from Rayy. The letter said:

"You must hand over all the territory you have conquered to Harsimah and march towards Ahwāz."

Tahir complied and marched to Ahwāz with the army.

Deposition and Appointments of Caliph Ameen

It has been stated above that Caliph Haroon Rasheed had imprisoned Abdul Malik bin Saleh for his complicity with the Barmuk family. Immediately after assuming power, Ameen set him free. When the Baghdad armies began to suffer repeated defeats at the hands of Tahir, Abdul Malik bin Saleh went to the Caliph's court and said, "The Syrians and not the Iraqis should be sent to fight with the Khorasanis for they can fight more valiantly and I stand surety to their obedience and loyalty." Caliph Ameen gave him the letter of governorship for Syria and Jazirah and sent him there. He reached Riqqa and entered into correspondence with the nobles of Syria and formed a large army of Syrians. Husain bin Ali bin Isa was also with Abdul Malik heading the part of the army that consisted of Khorasanis. Abdul Malik fell ill and died during this period. A civil war broke out between the Syrians and the Khorasanis. The Syrians proceeded towards their homes. Husain bin Ali bin Isa took the Khorasani army with him and went to Baghdad. The civilians and the nobility of Baghdad welcomed him. Ameen called him to his court at night but Husain refused to go. The next morning having persuaded his men to depose Ameen, he came to the bridge leading into the city. There was a confrontation with Ameen's army, which was defeated. Husain bin Ali attacked the Caliph's palace, arrested Ameen and his mother Zubaidah Khatoon and imprisoned them in Mansoor's palace and took the oath from the people for Mamoon's caliphate. The next day they demanded their daily allowances but they did not receive as much as they required and that began gossip among the people. Slowly and gradually, the inhabitants of Baghdad began to express their sorrow at Ameen's deposition and arrest. They united and clashed with Husain bin Ali bin Isa. Husain bin Ali bin Isa fought a very fierce battle with them in which Husain bin Ali bin Isa was defeated and captured. The citizens went to Mansoor's palace and freed Ameen and Zubaidah Khatoon. They had Ameen sit on the throne of the Caliphate and took the oath with him again and they brought Husain in chains before Ameen. Ameen reproached him and then pardoned him and said to him, "Make amends for your mistake by going to fight with Tahir and defeat him and gain respect and fame." He was then invested with a robe of honor and sent off with great respect. The civilians of Baghdad accompanied him to the bridge congratulating him. When the crowd thinned, Husain crossed the bridge and ran away announcing that he was still a rebel. Ameen sent some cavalry after him. They caught him at a distance of three miles from Baghdad and after a light skirmish he was killed. His head was cut off and brought to Ameen. This occurred on 15 Rajab 196 A.H. The same day Fadal bin Rabi who was Ameen's Prime Minister, disappeared mysteriously and no one knew his whereabouts. Ameen was very worried over Fadal bin Rabi's disappearance and betrayal.

Ameen and Mamoon’s Civil War: Provincial Revolts and Tahir’s Victory

Rafe and Harsimah in the Service of Mamoon

It has been stated above that Harsimah had laid a siege to Rafe at Samarkand and Rafe was still at large when Haroon died in Tus. Rafe's brother, Basheer, was arrested and brought to Haroon Rasheed who had him killed.

After Haroon's death Harsimah bin Ayun entered Samarkand by force and occupied it, at the time he was accompanied by Tahir bin Husain. Rafe escaped and ran away from Samarkand and took refuge with the Turks. He came back with a Turkish army to fight with Harsimah but he lost this battle. Rafe became estranged from the Turks and he became very weak. He sent his messenger to Mamoon and begged for pardon and safety. Mamoon granted it to him and he came to Merv in his service. He was given a warm reception. Harsimah visited Mamoon and Mamoon made him an officer of his cavalry. It was during the same period that Mamoon deposed Abbas bin Abdullah bin Malik from the governorship of Rayy.

Ameen and Mamoon as open Rivals

Ameen received the news in Baghdad that Mamoon had made Harsimah an officer of his cavalry and accepted Rafe as his companion with honor and deposed Abbas bin Abdullah as the governor of Rayy. He was justifiably displeased to hear this and expunged Mamoon's name from the Friday sermon and entered his son's name as heir apparent. He then sent Abbas bin Musa bin Isa bin Jafar and Muhammad bin Isa bin Naheek to Mamoon with the message, that said, "Agree to my son superceding you as heir apparent and make an announcement to the effect that Musa bin Ameen is the heir apparent in your place." Mamoon rejected this and Fadal bin Sahal took advantage of the situation. He converted Abbas bin Musa to his camp secretly and persuaded him to remain stationed in Baghdad and work as to spy and communicate any important information. Ameen had asked Mamoon to withdraw from the governorship of a few states in Khorasan, which he refused immediately. When Mamoon was informed that his name had been removed from the Friday sermon in Baghdad, he also deleted Ameen's name from sermons is Khorasan. Ameen tore up the document that was hung on the Ka'bah by Haroon. This occurred in the beginning of 194 A.H. From this point forward Mamoon Rasheed had the right to oppose Ameen openly. Mamoon very carefully sealed Khorasan so that no letter or messenger of Ameen's could enter it and create any unrest or revolt there.

Unrest in the Provinces

When the news of the enmity between the two brothers caused by the removal of the document from the Ka'bah and tearing it into pieces, and the removal of their names from their respective sermons became common knowledge, forces that breed on dissension began to appear. Khagan, Tibet, the lands of the Turks and Kabul territories that paid their taxes and were loyal to the Islamic authority, began to revolt. The news upset Mamoon however, on the advice of Fadal bin Sahal he wrote mild letters to the Kings of those lands, excused the taxes of some and allowed concessions to some and thereby strengthened the bond of reconciliation with them. Mamoon's worries were short lived and no disturbances inside his territory were created because most of the Khorasanis supported Mamoon wholeheartedly and wanted to defeat Ameen who was supported by the Arabs. Negative forces of dissension caused unrest, and disturbances surfaced in the provinces under Ameen and they proved more dangerous to him. Only one man from among the Banu Umayyad dynasty had survived named Ali bin Abdullah bin Khalid bin Yazid bin Muawiya. His mother was Nafisah bint Obaidullah bin Abbas bin Ali bin Abi Talib. He was known as Siffenane. He used to say, "I am the son of the chiefs of Siffen, that is, Muawiya's and Ali's son." He was educated and wise. Seeing Ameen and Mamoon preparing to confront each other he revolted in Syria and the Syrian tribes, which had connections with Banu Umayyad, joined him. Ameen sent his army to Syria and it was defeated. Syria remained unstable for several years. At last in 198 A.H., Siffenane was defeated by some other Syrian tribes and he fled from Syria and the Syrians captured Damascus. When Ameen had the document of Ka'bah torn into pieces, Dawood bin Isa refused to obey him and contended to the inhabitants of Madinah and the Hijaz, "Ameen is unjust to Mamoon. What we have promised before to Haroon Rasheed, we should keep it and we must never take the oath of succession for Musa who is only a baby." His efforts bore fruit and all the inhabitants of the Hijaz recognize Mamoon as Caliph and removed Ameen's name from the Friday sevations. Dawood bin Musa then left Makkah for Merv via Basra, Persia and Kerman and apprised Mamoon of the situations in the Hijaz. Mamoon was very pleased with him and appointed him governor of Makkah. That occurred in 196 A.H. In brief, disobedience and rebellions damaged Ameen considerably. Mamoon suffered no damage or loss and that was a pointer to the fact that Ameen was wanting in his capability of governing the land.

The Romans

Just a few days before Haroon Rasheed's death the Roman emperor Nagfoor was killed in the battle of Barjān. His son succeeded him after his death. He also died after two months. Then his sister's son-in-law Michael bin Jarjees sat on the throne. When the Romans rebelled against him the next year 194 A.H., he left the capital and joined a band of ascetics. Then the Romans chose their commander in chief as their King. In short, at the time when internal riots and disturbances were taking place in Haroon's government, the Roman Empire was not free from similar complications.

The Tug of War between Ameen and Mamoon

During the last days of 194 A.H., Ameen removed Mamoon as heir apparent and Mamoon expunged Ameen's name from the Friday sermon. After that, Ameen not only replaced Mamoon by his own son as heir apparent but also deposed his brother Motamin and replaced him by his other son Abdullah as second heir apparent. Now Musa and Abdullah's names were read in the sermons. There was nothing to stop Ameen and Mamoon from fighting with each other for superiority. Mamoon conferred the title of Dhurriyasatain on Fadal bin Sahal and appointed him as the Prime Minister. Tahir bin Husain bin Mus'ab bin Zaraiq bin Asad Khaza'i was made commander-in-chief of the army. Fadal bin Sahal went to the border state of Rayy and recruited veteran soldiers and by recruiting the people of the border regions formed an army and gave it to the commander. Tahir bin Husain appointed Abul Abbas Khazai the Commander of the army of Rayy, Abul Abbas equipped and fully armed his troops. On the other side, Ameen Rasheed sent Esmat bin Hammad bin Sālim with an army of infantry to Hamadan and ordered him to stay there and send the vanguard to Sadah, then he prepared a huge army under commandership of Ali bin Isa bin Mahan and sent it to Khorasan to face Mamoon. It was a great mistake on the part of Ameen and his Minister Fadal bin Rabl to send Ali bin Isa as commander to Khorasan because the inhabitants of Khorasan had been displeased with Ali bin Isa when he was governor there. As soon as they heard about his approach, they became determined to fight even more. Ameen handed over to Ali bin Isa Nahawand, Hamadan, Qum and Isfahan as feudal estates for him and gave him cash and equipment for more than his needs, he sent him a 50,000 man cavalry. He issued commands to all the administrators and officials to send reinforcements and every type of aid to him. When Ali bin Isa came to Ameen's mother Zubaidah Khatoon to say good-bye to her, she instructed him to refrain from showing disrespect to Mamoon if he was captured. In Sha'bān 195 A.H. he set out from Baghdad. Caliph Ameen along with officials of the government went with them for a little distance. The army was so large and impressive that the people of Baghdad had not seen the like of it before. When Ali bin Isa arrived near Rayy, his companions advised him to make fortifications and assign a vanguard. But Ali said, "Fortifications and vanguards are not needed to fight a man like Tahir." Hearing the news of Ali approaching near, Tahir also left Rayy and at a distance of five miles from Rayy, they clashed. Ali bin Isa had more than 50,000 fighters while Tahir had only 4,000 men. The distinction of strength between the two armies was so great that Ali bin Isa said to his men at the time of forming lines. "They need not be killed. They should be surrounded and captured." Seeing the huge army some of Tahir bin Husain's men fled at the time of marshalling of the troops in battle array and came to Ali bin Isa to reap the benefits of belonging to the victorious side and be safe from defeat. However, Ali bin Isa broke the rebels up and turned some out and captured others. This benefited Tahir considerably making every soldier in his army, ready to fight for his life. Tahir bin Husain's right and left flanks were defeated by Ali bin Isa's right and left flanks and they fled. Tahir, taking the center of his army, launched such a fierce attack on the middle part of Ali bin Isa's army that they had to withdraw. Seeing this, the defeated right and left flanks of Tahir's army returned and courageously joined him. A very fierce clash took place and during the turmoil of battle, an arrow pierced Ali bin Isa's neck and killed him. As he fell, his army began to retreat. Tahir's men chopped off Ali bin Isa's head. His victorious army chased the runaways for two miles and kept killing and capturing the Baghdad troops. The darkness of night intervened and saved them from further death and captivity. Tahir bin Husain came back to Rayy and sent a victory letter to Mamoon:

Ameen and Mamoon’s Rivalry: Succession Disputes After Haroon Rasheed’s Death

Ameen Rasheed bin Haroon Rasheed

Muhammad Ameen bin Haroon bin Mahdi bin Mansoor Abbasi was born to Zubaidah Khatoon. Ameen and Mamoon were the same age. Haroon had set Ameen to be Caliph after him and making Mamoon the permanent ruler of Khorasan and other eastern countries. He exhorted Ameen not to depose Mamoon from the governorship of Khorasan and advised Mamoon not to disobey Ameen. When Haroon Rasheed died as Tus, Mamoon was in Merv and Ameen was in Baghdad. Saleh was with Haroon Rasheed. The day after his death the 4th of Jamad-at-Thani 193 A.H. the chiefs and soldiers of Haroon's army took the oath at Saleh's hands in Tus for Ameen's caliphate.

The officer of the Postal Department Hamwaih at once informed his deputy in Baghdad of the incident. He therefore conveyed to Ameen the news of Haroon's death and Ameen's succession. Saleh bin Haroon also reported the matter to his brother Ameen and congratulated him on becoming Caliph and sent to him the caliph's ring, staff and coverlet. At that time Haroon Rasheed's wife and Ameen's mother Zubaidah Khatoon was in Riqqah and the caliph's treasury was under her procession. At the receipt of this news, Ameen went to the central mosque and delivered a sermon to the people. He narrated how Haroon died and took the oath from the people.

At this news Ameen's mother along with the royal treasury left Riqqah for Baghdad. Ameen went to Ambar to receive her and brought her to Baghdad with great honor. When Mamoon in Merv heard the news of his father's death, he assembled all the Amirs and commanders and sough their views as to what he should do. Notables among them were Abdullah bin Malik, Yahya bin Maaz, Shabeeb bin Humaid bin Qahtabah, Allamah Hajeb Abbas bin Zuhair, Ayyub bin Abi Sameer, Abdur Rahman bin Abdul Malik bin Saleh and Fadal bin Sahal. Mamoon and all these leaders had been with Haroon Rasheed on the journey from Baghdad to Jurjan.

During the journey, Fadal bin Sahal tried to attract the commanders and other leaders to Mamoon and many of them assured him that they would join Mamoon's supporters. However, Fadal bin Rabi who was Ameen's supporter arrived in Tus and after Haroon's death and due to Fadal bin Rabi's efforts all who were present in Tus, took the oath for Ameen and went to Baghdad without thinking that they should have paid a visit to Mamoon in keeping with Haroon's will that Mamoon was the owner of all the armies and provisions of the journey. All the chiefs who were with Mamoon supported him as the ruler of the eastern countries. Some of them advised him that Fadal bin Rabi was still on the way and he could be brought back with the help of the army.

But Fadal bin Sahal disapproved it saying, "If they are brought back in this way, there is apprehension that they will play false and prove harmful. Although, it is certainly proper that those who professed obedience and promised help and sympathy should be contacted through messenger and be reminded of their promises they made to Haroon Rasheed in response to his will." So two messengers were sent. When they visited Fadal and the others, they found them to be their adversaries. Some abused Mamoon openly. They barely escaped, with their lives and returned with great difficulty then they reported all they had seen with their eyes. Mamoon was sure that he would not be allowed to bring under his control the eastern countries, this made him very worried and thoughtful.

Fadal bin Sahal, in the east, took up the gauntlet to make Mamoon the caliph. There were people among Mamoon's men who disliked him to be the caliph but wanted him to remain in power the eastern countries. But Fadal bin Sahal and his friends did not like Ameen's caliphate and were in favor of Mamoon to be the caliph. Fadal bin Sahal's father Sahal was a new Muslim who was originally a Zoroastrian who embraced Islam in Haroon Rasheed's times and it was Haroon who appointed his son Fadal as clerk to his own son Mamoon. Because of his cultural preferences, he wanted to make Mamoon the Caliph.

The fact was that Ameen's mother, Zubaidah Khatoon, was a Hasimiite which gave him the support of the Arabs. Mamoon's mother was Iranian by race therefore, the Iranians and the Khorasanis supported Mamoon. Ameen was present among the Arabs in Baghdad and Mamoon was among his supporters the Iranians in Merv. Zubaidah Khatoon hated Mamoon. The Arab leaders who supported the Abbasids disliked the Alawiites. However, in Khorasan the supporters of the Alawiites were found in large number. Jafar Barmuk, who supported the Alawiites, was Mamoon's tutor.

Therefore, Mamoon was more popular in the eastern countries like Khorasan. Fadal bin Rabi who hated the Barmuk family was displeased with Mamoon. In brief, Mamoon and Ameen's intentions were not clear and not without selfish concerns and they were surrounded by leaders, who were divided into two groups both antagonistic to each other. Therefore, immediately after Haroon's death both these groups under the leadership of Ameen and Mamoon started a trial of strength and were not pleased with each other. In order to win the hearts of the Khorasanis one quarter of their taxes were excused in addition to promising them a grant of honor and promotions for the Khorasani leaders.

The Iranians were overjoyed and said, "Mamoon Rasheed is our sister's son. He will definitely raise our status and authority." On the other side Mamoon called the scholars and legal experts of Merv and said, "Please influence the people through your sermons and keep the situation under control." Under the prevailing conditions, the wisest step that Mamoon Rasheed took was that he wrote to Ameen Rasheed fervently trying his best to assure him of his respect and loyalty.

If Caliph Ameen Rasheed had been patient and far-sighted, Mamoon Rasheed would have probably become involved in something illegal and uncalled for and would have been declared guilty and blameworthy in the eyes of the people and probably would not have succeeded. However, Fadal bin Rabi and the other counselors did not prove worthy and Ameen did not show any trace of wisdom. All his activities convinced the people that he was not capable to run the caliphate. As soon as he assumed power, he committed the first mistake. He deposed his brother Qasim, Motamin, from the governorship of the Jazirah leaving him with the provinces of Qansareen and Awasim only in the beginning of his caliphate and deputed Khuzaima bin Khazim to Jazirah.

The same year, on the advice of Fadal bin Rabi, he wanted to replace Mamoon by his own son Musa bin Ameen as the heir apparent and this gave Mamoon a chance to oppose him justly. At the time when Haroon Rasheed was going to Khorasan, he had announced that the army and the entire supply of weapons and provisions would be under the authority of Mamoon and that he would be in charge. However, Fadal bin Rabi took the entire army, weapons and the provisions which were present at the time of Haroon's death, to Baghdad leaving Mamoon very weak. Fadal bin Rabi had the apprehension that if Mamoon succeeded Ameen as Caliph, he would deal harshly with him. He tried to have Mamoon deposed from the succession to protect himself. Ali bin Isa, the governor of Khorasan, considered himself in the same position so he seconded Fadal's proposal and persuaded Ameen to remove Mamoon.

When the issue was put before Khuzaima bin Khazim, he dissented from it and stopped the Caliph from undertaking this action for the time being. This news continued to reach Mamoon but he kept quiet and waited for the results.

The Death of Haroon Rasheed and the Abbasid Caliphate’s Golden Age

The Death of Haroon Rasheed

After punishing the Romans, defeating and humiliating Nagfoor and collecting all taxes from him, Haroon Rasheed returned to Riqqah. Here he was apprised of the crimes of Rafe bin Laith and the disloyalty of some Khorasani leaders. He made up his mind to go to Khorasan. He made provisions for the army, left Riqqah in Shaban 192 A.H. and then marched on to Baghdad. While departing, Haroon made Motamin his deputy at Riqqah and Khuzaima bin Khazim his assistant. He then made his son Ameen his deputy in Baghdad and ordered Mamoon to stay with him there. Mamoon's scribe, Fadal bin Sahal, said to Mamoon. "It is not proper for you to remain with Ameen in Baghdad try to accompany the Caliph." Mamoon requested from his father to be allowed to accompany him and he granted it. Just as Haroon was about to leave Baghdad, Fadal bin Yahya Barmuk died in captivity in Muharram 193 A.H. When he was busy fighting the Romans, he became sick and reached Riqqah in the same state of illness. When he came to Baghdad, he was still ill and it was in that condition that he left for Khorasan with the army. The Caliph left Baghdad and reached Jurjan in Safar 193 A.H. His illness took a turn for the worse there. He made an announcement before all the military commanders at Jurjan. "Whatever army and military equipment with me at the moment, it will remain attached to Khorasan and Mamoon. He is the commander and owner of all these armies and all the commanders will obey him." Relieved in this way from Mamoon's position Haroon Rasheed sent him to Merv in the company of leaders like Abdullah bin Malik, Yahya bin Ma'az, Asad bin Khuzaima, Abbas bin Jafar bin Muhammad bin Ash'ath and Naim bin Hazim. After sending Mamoon to Merv, he went to Tus. He was then accompanied by Fadal bin Rabi, Ismail bin Sabih, Mansoor Hajib Husain and Jibrail bin Bakhtishu. At Tus his condition worsened and he was bed-ridden. We have read above about the fight between Harsimah bin Ayun and Rafe bin Laith. Bukhara was conquered and Rafe's brother Bashir bin Laith was arrested. Harsimah sent him to the Caliph's court. When Haroon was in his sickbed, Bashir was led into his presence. Haroon ordered his death and he was killed very mercilessly. After giving the execution order, Haroon became unconscious. When he regained his consciousness, he ordered a grave to be dug in a corner of the home where he was staying. When it was ready, a few Quran readers descended into it and recited the whole Quran. He had his cot shifted to the graveside and lying on it he continued to look at the grave. In that state, he died on the night of 3 Jamad Thani 193 A.H. corresponding to 24 March 808 AD. His funeral service was led by his son Saleh. He had been Caliph for 23 years and two and half months. His grave in Tus is well known.

Haroon Rasheed was married to Zubaidah bint Jafar bin Mansoor. Her kunya was Umm Jafar. Muhammad Ameen was born to her. Ali, Abdullah, Mamoon, Qasim, Motamin, Muhammad Mu'tasim, Saleh, Muhammad Abu Musa, Muhammad Abu Yaqub, Abul Abbas, Abu Sulaiman, Abu Ali and Abu Ahmad all were born to his slave-girls. Among his sons, four are famous Ameen, Mamoon, Mu'tasim and Mohasin. Mohasin was not literate and so Haroon did not regard him fit for succession. However, he became caliph and many of his descendents were Abbasid caliphs and Haroon Rasheed's line continued through him. Just as he left many sons at the time of his death, he left many daughters as well who were all born from his slave-girls.

Haroon Rasheed should be considered as the high point in the Abbasid dynasty. The Abbasid caliphate became powerful and touched its zenith during his administration. The descendants of Abi Talib and other conspiring groups felt discouraged in their efforts. He was a great lover of knowledge and cared very much for Islam. He completely uprooted the evil of atheists. The Christian Empire of Rome paid taxes to him. He left 900,000,000 dinars in the treasury at his death. He was the ruler of the entire Islamic world except Spain and Morocco. It was during his period of rule that the work of composition and compilation of the Islamic sciences was begun in earnest. The Jewish and Christian scholars were honored and patronized in the court of Baghdad. He endowed the Christians with military commands and kept them in his company as friends. During his Caliphate, the Indian scholars reached Baghdad directly or through the Governor of Sindh and they were all honored. Books in Hebrew were translated and the compilation of various sciences and arts were introduced. During his rule, the life of the people was comfortable and they enjoyed a high level of wealth and prosperity. Poetry and music also flourished in Baghdad in this period. Story tellers wrote fictitious and fanciful tales about Haroon, which became popular in the world and created a good deal of misunderstanding about him (this is a reference to 1001 Nights among other works). Haroon Rasheed was a brave and military-minded man. He spent months and years happily in the saddle of his horse. And when he was in the company of the ascetic, he appeared to be an ascetic, and when among the legal scholars, he was a legal scholar of the first order and similarly when sitting with scholars of the Prophet's traditions, he was an excellent scholar in this field as well. He was an enemy to the atheists, with the followers of other religions he dealt kindly and sympathetically. He was extremely fond of three things Hajj, Jihad and charity. He was very sensitive and softhearted. Whenever anybody sincerely lectured him and made him fear hell, he wept bitterly.

One day Ibn Sammak was sitting with Haroon. Haroon felt thirsty and he asked for water and water was brought. When he wanted to drink, Ibn Sammak said: "O Amir al-Muminin! Stop a moment." Haroon Rasheed said, "Yes?" Ibn Sammak said, "If you can't get water when you are most thirsty, how much will you spend to get a bowl of water?" Haroon Rasheed said, "I shall exchange it for half of my realm." Ibn Sammak said, "Now, you may drink." When he finished Ibn Sammak said, "O Amir al-Muminin! If this water remains in your abdomen and does not come out, how much will you spend to take it out?" Haroon Rasheed said, "Half of my realm if need be." Ibn Sammak said, "Enough. Now you must know that the price of your whole realm is equal to a bowl of water and a bowl of urine. You must not be proud of it." Haroon Rasheed burst into tears and continued to weep for a long time.

Once Haroon Rasheed requested a righteous and pious man to advise him. He said, "If your friend is such as makes you fear leading to good results he is better than the friend who makes you careless and indifferent to fear leading to bad results." Haroon Rasheed requested him to explain what he said. He replied, "If anybody who tells you that on the Day of Judgment you will be questioned about your subjects and so you fear Allah much it is better than he who tells you that you are from among the family of the Prophet and that by virtue of your proximity to the Prophet, all your sins will be forgiven." Hearing it he wept so much that those sitting near by began to feel pity for him.

Qadi Fudail says, "Except two Kings there is none who has undertaken a journey for religious knowledge during his student days. One is Haroon Rasheed who along with his sons Ameen and Mamoon went on a journey to listen to the Mu'atta of Imam Malik and the manuscript that was read from is available with the Egyptian Kings. The second is Sultan Salahuddin Ayyubi who traveled to Alexandria to give audience to the Muwatta of Imam Malik."

Haroon Rasheed was interested in polo and archery. He was 45 when he died. Doctor Jibrail bin Bakhtishu committed an error in treating lum and that was why the Doctor was considered pro Ameen and his Hijab, spokesman, Masroor was considered a supporter of Mamoom While Haroon was on the journey, his condition continued to worsen and his son Ameen wrote some letters addressed to Haroon Rasheed's companions and sent them through Bakr bin Al-Motamir. Those letters were purported to have been written for the sake of the oath being taken for his caliphate, presuming Haroon Rasheed dead. One letter was addressed to his brother Saleh to come to him at once with all the army, equipment and the treasury after consulting Fadal bin Rabi. The same types of letters were addressed to other companions of Haroon Rasheed. A similar letter was written to Fadal bin Rabi. The letters assured all the chiefs they would be retained in their respective posts. Haroon came to know of the event and the arrival of Bakr bin Almotamir by chance. He sent for him and questioned him about the purpose of his visits. When he failed to give a satisfactory reply, he was imprisoned.

Haroon Rasheed died after this incident. Fadal bin Rabi had Bakr released from the jail and he distributed Ameen's letters. When the leaders went through them, they had consultations. As all were eager and anxious to go back to their native land Baghdad, Fadal bin Rabi was able to take all of them to Baghdad and the orders left by Haroon and their commitments to Mamoon were all forgotten.