The Rise of the Fatimid Dynasty and Caliph Muqtadir Billah

Invasions by the Turks and the Romans

In 291 A.H., the Romans with an army of 100,000 invaded the Islamic territories but they did not succeed. The border commanders put them to rout. In 293 A.H., a new group of invaders appeared, that is the Turks who lived in the northern mountains and forests of Mawaraunnahr. It was the first major attack from this side. The number of these barbaric invaders was staggering.

Ismail Samani, the governor of Mawaraunnahr, acted with courage and perseverance, collected all his forces and taught the invaders a good lesson. Thousands were killed and arrested and the remainder escaped. The same year the Romans begged the Muslims for amnesty and prisoners were exchanged as a good lesson. However, soon after this reconciliation they led a night attack on the city of Quras. Thousands of Muslims were killed and captured being caught off-guard. They burnt down the central mosque and returned to Roman territory. The same year Ismail Samani captured some parts of Delam and the territories of the Turks by force. In 294 A.H., the Muslims invaded the Roman territories from Tartoos and captured many Romans including a Prelate who willingly embraced Islam.

The Death of Muktafi Billah

After ruling for six years and six months Muktafi Billah breathed his last in Baghdad on Jamad Awwal 295 A.H. and was buried in Muhammad bin Tahir's house. He had made his brother Jafar his heir-apparent before he died. He left 15 million dinars in the treasury at the time of his death. Jafar bin Motazid was 13. After coming to the throne, he called himself Muqtadir Billah.

Muqtadir Billah

The real name of Muqtadir Billah bin Motazid Billah was Jafar and his kunya was Abul Fadl. He was born of a Roman slave girl Ghuralb. When Muktafi Billah consulted the people on his heir to the throne just before his death, they assured him that his brother Muqtadir Billah had come of age of puberty and only then did he make him his heir-apparent. Before this, no Caliph of such a young age had come to the throne. After his accession, the people began to talk about his abdication. As Prime Minister, Abbas bin Hasan's powers were great and he had been authorized to use the treasury, this caused the members of the government to be apprehensive. The Prime Minister was also not pleased at a boy assuming power. He therefore persuaded Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Motaz to accept the caliphate. While they were preparing for Muqtadir's abdication and Muhammad Motaz's accession, Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Motaz died. Then arrangements were made to put Abul Husain bin Motawakkil on the throne but he also died. Due to his and Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Motaz's deaths, Caliph Muqtadir's position was firmly established.

After sometime, they started gossiping again and the members of the government wanted to persuade Abdullah bin Motaz to accept the caliphate. He agreed to it provided there should be no bloodshed and all the members of the government also agreed to it. However, Prime Minister Abbas bin Hasan did not agree to it. On 20 Rabia Awwal 296 A.H. while the Prime Minister was going to his garden, he was suddenly attacked and killed. The next day the deposition of Muqtadir was announced and the oath for Abdullah bin Motaz took place. At that time, Caliph Muqtadir was playing polo. Having heard about his deposition, he went to his palace and closed the doors.

Soon after coming to the throne Abdullah bin Motaz chose Al-Murtaza Billah as his title and wrote to Muqtadir, "You will be safe if you leave the capital and give up the desire for the caliphate." Muqtadir replied: "I gladly agree to what you say but give me time until this evening."

At night, the servant Munis consulted other servants on how to create a disturbance. When Husain bin Hamdan came to the palace door in the morning, they showered arrows on him. They continued doing this until the evening. At night, others began to join Muqtadir's group. As a consequence, the new Caliph, Abdullah bin Motaz, along with some of his supporters had to go into hiding. Muqtadir then appointed Abul Hasan bin Forat as Prime Minister. Abdullah bin Mutaz was arrested and killed.

The same year in Rabia Thani 296 A.H., the oath for Obaidullah Mahdi took place in Africa and thus the Obadiah (Fatimid) dynasty was founded and the Aghlab dynasty came to an end in North Africa.

The Origin of the Obadiah (Fatimid) Dynasty

The first ruler Obaidullah Mahdi claimed to be the son of Muhammad bin Jafar bin Muhammad bin Ismail bin Jafar Sadiq. The Abbasids questioned his lineage. He in fact was originally a Zoroastrian and some have called him a Christian.

The well-known judge, Qadi Abu Bakr Baqillani, has refuted Obaidullah Mahdi's claim to be from the Prophet's family or to being of a high lineage. During Caliph Qahir Billah's regime when the question of his lineage was under consideration, renowned scholars clearly denounced Obaidullah Mahdi's claim to be an Alawiite. These scholars include Abul Abbas Abyuzah, Abu Hamid Asfaraini and Abu Jafar Nasfi Qudoori. Among the Alawiites Murtada Ibn Bathawi and Ibn Azraq have also called him a fraud in his claim. He was a Shiite however, the scholars of the Shiites have rebutted his claim to be an Alawi. Furthermore, Abu Abdullah Ibn Noman has also called him a liar in his claim to be an Alawi. The chief of the historians Sheikh Jalaluddin Suyuti has very emphatically proved him to be false in his claim to be of a well-known family. He has proved him to be of Zoroastrian heritage.

However, a very great scholar of history, Ibn Khaldoon has attempted to prove him to be an Alawiite. In both his introduction to history and in his history book Ibn Khaldoon has given recognition to his claim of noble lineage. However, the arguments he has offered in this respect are very unusual. He writes, "A great dynasty was established in Obaidullah's family. Had he not been an Alawi, the people would not have recognized his leadership and given away their heads under his flag."

Offering such arguments as proof of someone's noble birth is certainly not scientific and the reality is that he has not given even a single proof in this respect. As he himself was a West Acrican, naturally he does not like a western ruler to be discredited. Similarly, he exerts much effort to prove the sultanate of Idrisids of Morocco to be Alawi. He tries his level best to prove Idris II to be son of Idris I and unnecessarily brings into discussion the chastity of a Berber woman. The misunderstanding may possibly be a sin against the Imam in question.

With the beginning of Abbasid caliphate the Alwis antagonistic activities began against the administration. The Alwis rose again and again and every time they met with failure. Abdullah bin Saba, the Jew had sown the seed of discord among the people and conspiracies against the administration. Their nefarious plan was aided and abetted by the Magi, Jews, Berbers etc. who were carrying out their activities in the garb of neo-Muslims. And when Abbasid dynasty showed signs of weakness some Jews and Magis tried to present themselves as Alwis to benefit from the flowing situation. Since Berber territories were far distant from Baghdad, the centre of power due advantage could be taken of their inherent nature. Thus, a person named Muhammad Habib who lived at Salmia in Homs towards the end of the third century Hajara came on the scene as one descending from Imam Jafar Sadiq's elder son Isma'il. He tried to cash in on his relation with the Imam. Right from his time Imam Jafar Sadiq's influence had spread throghout Yemen, Africa and Morocco. He used all his means, devices and force to turn the people to expect the arrival of Imam Mahdi in immediate future who were to be from among the Alwi Fatimi. Habib sent one of his confidants Rustam bin Hasan bin Haushab to Yemen to convince people of the arrival of Imam Mahdi in near future. He performed his duty with utmost care and tact.

Following this a man named Abu Abdullah Hasan bin Muhammad bin Zakariya, a Shi'ite by faith, and a staunch support of the Alwis came to Habib. He found him promising and sent him, after necessary instructions, to keep company with Rustam bin Hasan for a few days and learn from him the art of preaching and then go to Berber territories to perform his duty. Muhammad Habib had also told Abu Abdullah that his son, Ubaidullah was Imam Mahdi and that he was being sent as one inviting people towards him. Abu Abdullah arrived in Yemen, took lesson in preaching and reached Makkah in Hajj season.

There he sought out the caravan of the Hajjis from Katama and became friendly with them. Observing how pious he was they revered and served him.

When they set out towards Africa after the Hajj, he accompanied them. They took it as an auspicious sign. Reaching Katama, they had a house built for him on Mount Ankajan, which they called Fajjul Akhyar. He told them that the Mahdi was about to appear and that he was instructed by him to stay in Katama and he had told him that his supporters would be from there. Gradually Abu Abdullah's government and leadership became established in Katama.

When the news reached Ibrahim bin Ahmad bin Aghlab, the Governor of North Africa, at the capital Qairwan, he wrote to the ruler of Melah to give him a report about Abu Abdullah. He wrote back that he was an ascetic and instructed the people to perform their prayers and observe fast. Ibrahim was silent after hearing this. After a few days Abu Abdullah armed and fortified his group and invaded Melah city, expelled the governor and captured it. Ibrahim bin Aghlab then gave an army to his son Ahwal and sent him to Melah. Abu Abdullah suffered defeat and fled to Katama and took refuge on Mount Ankajan. Ahwal left for Qairwan.

Meanwhile the ruler of North Africa, Ibrahim bin Ahmad died. His son Abul Abbas then succeeded to the throne. Abu Abdullah founded and populated a city named Darul Hajarah. Ahwal went to mount Ankajan to punish him. Meanwhile Abul Abbas died and his son Zeyadatullah came to the throne.

Zeyadatullah recalled Ahwal and killed him on some false pretext. Abu Abdullah continued to increase his power. He sent a delegation of people from Katama to Obaidullah Mahdi in Homs where he was staying. He briefed him about his victories and asked him to come to North Africa.

Some spies informed Caliph Muktafi Billah about the arrival of the delegation carrying the said message. He at once issued a warrant for the arrest of Obaidullah and wrote to the Egyptian governor Isa Naushri (then Governor of Egypt after the downfall of the Tuloons) to arrest him. [This has also been taken by Ibn Khaldoon as a proof of Obaidullah being a Sayed (from the Prophet's family), indicating that if he had not been of the Prophet's family, the caliph would not have given orders for his arrest. This is another very weak proof, any government would arrest those who desired to over throw their rule and it is not evidence as to the heritage of any conspirator.] The rulers of the Aghlab dynasty recognized the leadership of the Abbasid caliphate and read the name of the Abbasid Caliph in the Friday sermons. They bordered Egypt so how could Muktafi stand the creation of any major disturbance in North Africa with out responding?

Obaidullah left Homs with his son and his supporters. He disguised himself as a merchant and joined a commercial caravan. He was caught in Egypt but Naushri released him based on incomplete information. He passed through Egypt and entered North Africa. Zeyadatullah's spies were after him but he managed to conceal himself from them until he reached Sijilmassa. The administrator of the place caught him and jailed him along with his son. Zeyadatullah was drowned in debauchery and neglected state administration and consequently Abu Abdullah the Shiite's power continued to increase and nothing was done to deter him. When Zeyadatullah saw that Abu Abdullah the Shiite had captured the major parts of North Africa and continued to do so, he collected a huge army and sent it to punish him.

Abu Abdullah could not stand the pressure of such a huge army and climbed up the peak of a high mountain. He remained besieged there for six months. In the seventh month, he led a successful night attack on the North African army and put it to rout and then began to conquer city after city. Zeyadatullah then sent another commander to fight against him but he was defeated. In 295 A.H. after making special arrangements, he sent his armies and Generals to discipline Abu Abdullah however, he had already established his power. For a year the chain of battles continued. Sometimes Abu Abdullah was defeated and sometimes he defeated the African army. During this period, Abu Abdullah's group kept multiplying and people kept on joining him while Zeyadatullah's army was becoming smaller. One city after another continued to come under Abu Abdullah's control until Zeyadatullah's army commanders started joining him. Urwah bin Yusuf and Hasan bin Abi Khazir joined him and were appointed to important posts. In Rajab 296 A.H., Abu Abdullah captured the capital Qairwan and put Zeyadatullah to rout and let the people of Katama stay in the royal palaces. He then invaded Sijilmassa, defeated the Governor Yasa' bin Madar, captured and killed him. He then took Obaidullah Mahdi out of the jail and put him on a horse and went to the army camp declaring to all, "This is your leader," referring to the Mahdi. He then left and came to the city of Rafadah. Abu Abdullah and all others took the oath for Obaidullah and called him Al-Mahdi Amir al-Muminin. This oath took place in the last ten days of Rabia Thani 296 A.H. and it marks the beginning of the Obadiah dynasty (Fatimids).

Soon after coming to the throne, Obaidullah Mahdi sent his missionaries to every corner of the territory. Those who refused to accept his religion were killed. He gave feudal estates and important posts to the people of Katama. He sent Hasan bin Abl Khazir to Sicily as its ruler. He reached there on 10 Thul Hijjah 297 A.H. and made all the subjects of the island hate him because of his tyranny.

He began to appoint governors and administrators in the whole of North Africa. In 299 A.H., the people of Sicily sent a letter to Obaidullah Mahdi complaining against Hasan bin Abi Khazir. He sent Ali bin Omar as Governor in his place. The civilians were displeased with him too. They deposed him and chose Ahmad bin Mohib as their leader. Ahmad bin Mohib induced the people to obey the Abbasid Caliph Muqtadir Billah. He expunged Mahdi's name from the Friday sermon and entered Muqtadir's name in his place and sent a war fleet to the North African coast.

Obaidullah Mahdi sent a war fleet under Husain bin Ali bin Khazir's command to defend the coast. The fleets clashed and Ibn Khazir had killed and Obaidullah Mahdi's fleet was destroyed by the ships from Sicily.

When the news reached Baghdad, Caliph Muqtadir dispatched black robes and flags to Ahmad bin Mohib and for one year the name of the Abbasid Caliph was read in the Friday sermon in Sicily. Obaidullah Mahdi prepared a powerful war fleet and sent it to Sicily, which broke Ahmad bin Mohib's power. The people of Sicily arrested him and sent him along with his men to Obaidullah Mahdi and he begged for forgiveness. Obaidullah Mahdi ordered Ahmad bin Mohib and his men to be taken to Ibn Khazir grave and killed. This occurred in 300 A.H.